FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FORSCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

yf%

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

r

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.
Edited by R. BOWDLER SHARPS, LL.D., F.L.S., Etc.

A HAND-BOOK ^

TO THE

BIRDS

OF

GREAT BRITAIN

BY

R. BOWDLER SHARPE, LL.D.,

ASSISTANT KEEPER, SUB-DEPARTMENT OF YERTEBRATA,
ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, BRITISH MUSEUM.

VOL. IV.

LONDON :

W. H. ALLEN & CO., LIMITED,

13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W.
1897.

./*. g^ fj Fr n lu /■--'^►ii^ ^

PRINTED BY

WYMAN AND SONS, LIMITED.

PREFACE.

On the conclusion of my " Handbook " I should like to say
a few words, principally in reply to some friendly criticisms.
The plentiful crop of works on British Birds, which springs up
year by year and apparently flourishes, renders it almost an
impossibility to write a book on the subject on altogether ne\\
lines, as the story of our native birds is being told by a
hundred authors in a hundred different ways. Within the
restricted limits allotted to me in the *' Naturalist's Library," it
was manifestly impossible to produce a monographic work,
and therefore I chose the form of a ' Handbook,' a method
which possesses its advantages and disadvantages. Such a work
cannot be exhaustive, and I have therefore only tried to make
it useful, and I offer a few remarks by way of an " Apologia."

Nomenclature. — The names adopted for the species have been
much criticised. Much of this criticism has been prompted by
pedantry, and a sort of hero-worship for the work of the
ancients, more by a child-like ignorance of the principles of
scientific nomenclature, and still more by a wilful and narrow-
minded intolerance of anything that seems to be "new." As a
matter of fact, nothing in my system of nomenclature is "new,"
and any one who says so does but display his ignorance of
recent ornithological literature. It is, however, encouraging
to find that in the best-known popular journals, and even in
the best scientific publications of this country, little fault has
been found with the method of my " Handbook/' but a general
onslaught has been made upon the nomenclature I have
adopted. To the reviews in the scientific journals I have
scarcely any reply to make. The writers of the articles will be
found adopting my nomenclature in the near future, and if

VI PREFACE

not, why not? They will have to explain dearly their reasons
for differing from me, and I have little fear as to their ultimate
conversion.

To the ornithological students, and to the critics on the
staffs of the popular daily and monthly journals who differ from
me, I should like once more to explain my reasons for employing
the names I do. I have not adopted the names given in the
tenth edition of Linnaeus "Systema Naturae" (1758), but have
preferred those of the twelfth edition (1766). Therein I follow
the rules of the British Association. American and German
ornithologists start their nomenclature from 1758, because in this
year Linnaeus first promulgated a strictly binomial nomenclature.
Good ! But, after death, a man would surely wish to be judged by
his most recent work, not by his earlier publications. Therefore,
it seems to me most reasonable to adopt the nomenclature of
the twelfth edition of the "Systema Naturae," as being the last
edition published by Linnaeus himself, and containing his
latest notions. In the eight years which elapsed since the
publication of the tenth edition, Linnaeus must have felt that
his knowledge had gained somewhat, otherwise he would not
have altered any of his work in his twelfth edition. Few critics
have fallen foul of me on this score, and indeed the changes
of nomenclature would be trifling, even if this adoption of the
1758 edition became universal, needless as it seems to me.

The chief point of offence laid to my door is rather the
employment of an identical generic and specific name, and I
find that all my explanations on the subject have failed to
convince the "man in the street." I should like to explain
myself once more, and I trust that the following example {Ex
uno disce omnes) may suffice to illustrate the principles of
nomenclature that I champion.

I take it that no one, whether adopting the tenth or the
twelfth edition of Linnaeus' " Systema," will object to the prin-

PREFACE. VU

ciple that a Linnean specific name ought not to be altered, if
the species to which it appHes is beyond question.

Let us take a couple of familiar examples. The Blackbird
I call Merula merula (Linn.). It is the Tardus merula of
Linnaeus. Many ornithologists do not admit that the Black-
bird is generically distinct from the Thrush {Turdus musicus)^
but for those who think otherwise, what is the generic name of
the Blackbird to be ? It is Merula of Leach, and therefore, if
it is considered necessary to keep Merula distinct from Turdus,
the Blackbird must be called Merula merula (Linn.). Or to take
the genus Cinclus. The Black-bellied Dipper is the Slurnus
cinclus of Linnaeus. No one in these days would suggest that
the Dippers are Starlings, and everyone adopts Bechstein's
genus Cinclus for these birds. The result is that the Black-
bellied Dipper must bear the name of Cinclus cinclus (Linn.) I
see no sort of escape from this conclusion.

Then, again, there is often a difficulty in fixing the type of
a Linnean genus, because modern research has much enlarged
the scope of our knowledge of birds since 1766. Thus the
genus Turdus of Linnaeus is the Family Turdidce of our
present Systems, and the genus Strix of Linn^us equals the
Family Strigidce, or the Order Striges of the present day. The
type of a Linnean genus can, therefore, be fixed only by

" elimination." I will take the genus Strix as an example.
Twelve species of Strix were known to Linnaeus and

described by him in 1766, divided into two sections — those

with ear-tufts, and those without.

a. AuriculatcB (■= Genus Asio, Briss. 1760).
Type of -^2^^^, Cuvier, 181 7. i. bubo.

2. scandiaca = No. 6.

3. asio. Is also a Scop, like

4. otus. LNo. 5.
liy])Q oi Scops, Savigny, 1809. 5. scops.

v^lll PREFACE.

b. InauricidatcE (= Strix, Linn.).

Type oi Nyciea, Stephens, 1826. 6. nyctea.
Type of Syrnium, Savigny, 1809. 7. aluco.

8. flammea.

9. stridula = No. 7.

Type o( Surma, Dumeril, 1806. | |°' f^J^J^^^
Type of Glaua'dii^m, Boic, 1826. 12. passerina

Hence we see that, by the gradual ehmination of the Linnean
species, as one after another becomes fixed as the type
of some genus or other, S^rix oius, Linn., remains the type of
the genus Asio, Briss., and Strix flammea is the sole survivor of
the genus Strix as instituted by Linnceus, and becomes its type.

Besides this, Savigny, when he split up the Owls in 1809,
and made several new genera, restricted the Barn Owl for his
genus Strix (ex Linn.), as he had every right to do.

Descriptio7is. — In the accounts of the different plumages of
our British Birds, I have, in nearly every case, described actual
specimens in the British Museum, and my descriptions through-
out the work have been mostly original. Some of my critics
have complained that these descriptions are unnecessarily long,
especially in the case of foreign birds which have occurred but a
few times in Great Britain. To that I would reply, that no one
knows what is going to happen, and these detailed descriptions
may one day be found useful in determining foreign visitors
to our shores ; and secondly, by the many hundreds of earnest
students, who may be unknown to fame, but who are neverthe-
less doing excellent work in many parts of the country, these
descriptions are studied, as I have been informed by many of
my correspondents. I have tried to condense into this "Hand-
book " only such descriptions of plumage as will be useful
to students, to whom the large works, in which such details
appear, are often inaccessible. In many instances I have

PREFACE. IX

copied the descriptions published by me in my volumes of the
*' Catalogue of Birds in the British Museum," when I found
that I could not add any new information on the subject ; and
I have been guided by the excellent volumes recently published
by Mr. Salvin, Count Salvadori, Mr. Howard Saunders, and
Mr. Ogilvie Grant, while I am indebted to the writings of these
gentlemen for important useful information, much of which has
not been published in any previous popular work on British
Birds.

Geographical Distribution and Habits. — In the treatment of
this branch of the subject, it is impossible to be original, and
the student will find little in my " Handbook " which is not
to be found in the fourth edition of "Yarrell," in Seebohm's
" History of British Birds," and other well-known works,
though I have endeavoured to give the latest knowledge on
the subject of the geographical distribution of our birds.
My life-work as an officer of the British Museum has natu-
rally been that of a " cabinet "-naturalist, from necessity, not
from choice ; but for a museum official, I think I have seen
more of the birds in the field than usually falls to the lot of a
stay-at-home ornithologist. Indeed, the reproach that is often
hurled at museum officials, viz., that they are "two-pair-back-
garret naturalists," is entirely undeserved, for, according to my
experience, they spend as much time in field-work as any other
professional men. Anyone looking through the published cata-
logue of a museum will generally find that the collections have
been enriched by the exertions of the naturalists in charge of
them in no small degree. Take the British Museum, for instance,
which is the institution at which the gibes of the opportunist
field-naturalists are generally hurled. After Lord Walsingham,
it will be found that the greater number of the groups of British
birds, with their nests, have been obtained by Mr. Ogilvie Grant
and myself, excepting some cases of rare species contributed

X PREFACE.

by Colonel Irby, Captain Savile Reid, and Mr. Theodore
Walker. The same may be said of the collection of bird-skins ;
and no one would say that Salvin, Godman, Hume, Seebohm,
Sclater, Shelley, or Howard Saunders, were not field-natural-
ists, because they were also " cabinet "-naturalists, and had
written important works on ornithology. The same can be
said of the ornithologists in foreign museums — of Biittikofer,
the explorer of Liberia and Dutch Borneo ; of Reichenow, the
traveller in Aguapim and the Cameroons ; of Meyer, the
explorer of Celebes and New Guinea ; of Hartert, the explorer
of the Niger, of Assam^ Perak, and Sumatra ; of Forbes, of
Timor Laut and New Guinea fame ; and dozens of others could
be mentioned. Of the American ornithologists, I believe that
there is not one in charge of a museum that has not won his
spurs in the field. The taunt of being " cabinet "-naturalist
only falls harmless in these days, when levelled at such men
and many others I could name.

My opportunities for field-work may have not been many. I
have tried to make the most of them, and I feel that this is
true, for nearly every vacation that I have had in my life has
been spent in the study of birds in their haunts. Nevertheless,
there are dozens of British birds whose nests I have never
taken, and whose haunts I have never been able to visit. My
own small experiences have been recorded in the present work,
but where I have not been fortunate enough to have personal
acquaintance with a species, I have given the best account
that I could lay my hands on at the time. The space at my
disposal has never been enough to go very deeply into the
subject of the habits of the birds, and I have generally given
a brief extract, taken from some well-known work, like that of
Seebohm, or from some less-known volumes like those of
Nelson, Elliot, Brehm, Saxby, &c. At the same time, I have
to acknowledge the receipt of many interesting original notes

PREFACE. XI

from friends like Mr. Robert Read, Mr. E. W. De Winton,
Mr. W. R. Ogilvie Grant, Mr. A. Trevor-Battye, Mr. Abel
Chapman, and other kind helpers, but I have taken most of
my quotations on the habits of birds from Seebohm's well-
known history. I knew Seebohm intimately for many years,
and accompanied him to Heligoland, and other places on
the continent of Europe, and I can testify to the keenness
with which he laboured to try and collect facts for his
" History of British Birds." Of his ideas of " Ckassification,"
and how his facts were obtained for the demonstration of his
Systems, this is not the place to speak, though I should like
to take this opportunity of repudiating the idea that in my
Classification of birds, published in 1891, I was a " disciple"
of Seebohm's, as Professor Newton (Diet. B. Intr. p. 103, note)
has lately suggested ; for a considerable portion of my essay
is devoted to the exposure of what I consider to be errors on
Seebohm's part. I have not detected any plagiarism in the
latter's " History of British Birds," but, on the contrary, from
my knowledge of his method of work in the field, and the
ample diaries which he kept on those occasions, I believe that
his notes on the habits of birds are more original than those
in any other English publications except, perhaps, those of
Macgillivray and Booth.

I cannot conclude this preface without acknowledging, with
the utmost sincerity, the kind help and advice which I have
received from my old friend Howard Saunders, without
whose assistance I should never have had the courage to
undertake such a laborious and tedious occupation as the pre-
paration of even a small book like this " Handbook " has proved
to be. I can only hope that its utility may be found in some
way to compensate for the labour involved in its preparation.

R. BOWDLER SHARPE.
Chiswick, March 10, 1897.

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

ORDER LARIFORMES i

FAMILY LARID.^ 2

SUB-FAMILY STERNIN^ 2

ecu. Hydrochelidon, Boie 3

1. nigra (Linn.). ... ... ... ••• 3

2. hybrida (Pall.) 6

3. leucoptera (Meisner & Schinz) ... ... ... .. 9

CCIII. Gelochelidon, Brehm 11

I. anglica (Mont.) 11

CCIV. IlYDROPROGNE, Kaup 13

I. caspia (Pall.). 14

CCV. Sterna, Linn. 17

1. fluviatilis, Naum. ... ... .. ... ... ... 17

2. macrura, Naum. ... ... ... ... ... ... 21

3. dougalli, Mont 23

4. canliaca, Gm. ... ... ... ... ... ... 27

5. anaestheta, Scop. ... ... ... ... ... ... 29

6. fuliginosa, Gm. ... ... . ... ... ... 32

7. minuta, Linn. ... .. ... ... .., ... 34

CCVI. Angus, Steph 2>7

I. stolidus (Linn.) 37

SUB-FAMILY LARIN/E 40

CCVII. Xema, Leach 41

I, sabinii (J. Sabine).... ... ... ... 4I

CCVIII. Rhodostethia, Bp 45

I, rosea (Macgill.) 45

CCIX. Larus, Linn 48

1. minutus, Pall. .- ... ... ... ... ... 49

2. ichlhyaetus. Pall. ... ... ... ... ... ... 51

3. mtlauocephalus, Nalt. ... ... ... ... ... 54

4. pliiladelphia (Ord.) 56

SYSTEMATIC INDEX. XIH

5. ridibundus, Linn. 59

6. marinus, Linn. ... ... .. ... ... ... 63

7. fuscus, Linn 66

8. argentatus, Gm. ... ... ... ... ... .. 70

9. canus, Linn. ,, ... ... ... ... ... 73

10. hyperboreus, Gunn. ... ... ... ... ... 76

11. leucopterus, Faber. 79

CCX. Pagophila, Kaup 81

I. eburnea (Phipps). .. ... ... ... 81

CCXL RissA, Steph 84

I. tridactyla (Linn.). 84

FAMILY STERCORARIID.E. ... 89

CCXIL Megalestris, Bp. 89

I. catarrhactes (Linn.). ., 90

CCXIIL Stercorarius, Briss 93

1. pomatorhinus (Temm.). ... ... ... ... ... 93

2. crepidatus (Banks). ... ... ... 97

3. parasiticus (Linn.). loi

SUB ORDER ALC^ 105

CCXIV. Alga, Linn 106

I. torda, Linn. ... ... ... ... ... ... 106

CCXV. Plautus, Brlinn no

I. impennis (Linn.). ... ... ... ... ... ... in

CCXVL Uria, Briss 114

1. troile (Linn.) II4

2. ringvia, Lath, 119

3. bruennichi, Sabine. 120

CCXVIL Cepphus, Pall. 123

I. grylle (Linn.). ... 123

CCXVIIL Alle, Link 127

I. alle (Linn.) 127

CCXIX. Fratercula, Briss 130

I. arctica (Linn.) 130

ORDER PROCELLARIIFORMES i35

FAMILY PROCELLARIID^ 135

XIV

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

SUB-FAMILY PROCELLARIIN^.
CCXX. Procellaria, (Linn.). ...

I. pelagica (Linn.)

CCXXL OcEANODROMA, Relchenb.

1. lencorrhoa (Vieill.).

2. cryptoleucura (Ridgw.). ...
SUB-FAMILY OCEANITIN/E.
CCXXII. OCEANITES, Keys. u. Bias.

I. oceanicus (Kuhl.).
CCXXIII. Pei.agodroma, Reichenb.
I. marina (Lath.)

FAMILY PUFFINID.E.
SUB-FAMILY FULMARIN^.
CCXXIV. FuLMARUS, Steph.

I. GLACiALis(Linn.).
CCXXV. Daption, Steph.

I. capensis (Linn.). ...

SUB-FAMILY PUFFININ^. .,
CCXXVI. PuFFiNUs, Briss.

1. gravis (O'Reilly). ...

2. pufifinus (Linn.). ...

3. yelkouanus (Acerbi).

4. obscurus (Gm.). ...

5. griseus (Gm.)

CCXXVII. GESTRELATA, Bp.

1. haesitata (Kuhl)

2. brevipes (Peale). ...
CCXXVIIL BuLWERiA, Bp.

I. bulweri (Jard. & Selby)-..

ORDER COLYMBIFORMES. .

CCXXIX. CoLYMBUS, Linn.

1. glacialis, Linn

2. adamsi, Gray.

3. arcticus, Linn

4. septentrionalis, Linn.

PAGE

... 136

••• 137

••• 137

... 140

... 140

■•• 143

... 144

... 145

... 145

... 149

... 149

... 152

... 152

... 152

••• 153

... 157

... 158

... 160

... 1 60

. . , 1 60

... 163

... 167

... 168

... 169

... 171

... 172

••• 173

-. 175

••■ 175

... 177

... 178

... 178

182, 304

... 185

... 187

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

ORDER PODICIPEDIDIFORMES

192

CCXXX. LOPH/ETHYIA, Kaup

192

I. cristata (Linn.)

194

2. griseigena (Bodd.).

... 198

CCXXXI. Dytes, Kaup

201

I. auritus (Linn.)

201

CCXXXI r. Proctopus, Kaup

204

I. nigricollis (C. L. Brehm).

204

CCXXXIIL PoDOCiPES, Kaup

207

I. fluviatilis (Tunst.)

207

CCXXXI V. PoDiLYMBUS, Less

213

I. podicipes (Linn.)

213

ORDER RALLIFORMES

215

FAMILY RALLID^

216

SUB-FAMILY RALLIN^

216

CCXXXV. Rallus, Linn

216

I. aquaticus, Linn

216

CCXXXVI. Crex, Bechst

220

I. crex (Linn.)

220

CCXXXVIL Zapornia, Leach

223

I. parva (Scop,)

223

CCXXXVIII. PORZANA, Vieill

226

I. porzana

226

2. Carolina (Linn.)

230

3. intermedia (Herm )

232

CCXXXIX. Gallinula, Briss

234

I. chloropus (Linn.).

234

CCXL. PoRPHYRio, Briss.

237

SUB-FAMILY FULICIN^

238

CCXLL FuLicA, Linn

238

I. atra, Linn.

238

ORDER COLUMBIFORMES

240

FAMILY COLUMBID^.

• 241

XVI

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

SUBFAMILY COLUMBIN.^. ...
CCXLII. COLUMBA, Linn.

1. palumbus, Linn. ...

2. oenas, Linn.

3 livia, Bonn.

SUB-FAMILY ECTOPISTIN^.
CCXLIII. EcTOPisTES, Swains. ...

I. migratorius (Linn.).
FAMILY PERISTERID^.
SUB-FAMILY TURTURINiE. ...
CGXLIV. TuRTUR, Selby.

1. turtur (Linn.)

2. orientalis (Lath.)

ORDER PTEROCLETES.

FAMILY PTEROCLID^.
CCXLV. Syrrhaptes, Illiger. ...
I. paradoxus (Pall.)

ORDER GALLIFORMES.

FAMILY TETRAONID^.
CCXLVL Lagopus, Briss.

1. scoticus (Lath.), ...

2. mutus (Montin). ...
CCXLVII. Lyrurus, vSwains. ...

I. tetrix (Linn.)

CCXLVIII. Tetrao, Linn.

I. urogallus, Linn. ...
FAMILY PHASIANID.F:
SUB-FAMILY PERDICIN^ ...
CCXLIX. Caccabis, Kaup.

I. rufa (Linn.).
CCL. Perdix, Briss.

I. perdix (Linn.)
CCLI. CoTURNix, Bonn

I. coturnix (Linn.). ...

SYSTEMATIC INDEX.

XVII

PAGE

SUB-FAMILY PHASIANIN^E

290

CCLII. Phasianus, Linn.

290

I. colchicus, Linn

291

APPENDIX

297

Addenda to Vol. I. ...

297

Ligurinus chloris

297

Cannabina exilipes. ...

297

Cannabina hornemanni

298

Pyrrhula pyrrhula

298

Sylvia sub-alpina

299

Phylloscopus viridanus.

... 300

Phylloscopus proregulus. ...

302

Addenda to Vol. II

303

Somateria spectabilis.

303

^gialitis hiaticola

304

Addenda to Vol. Ill

304

Larus atricilla.

.. 304

Colymbus adamsi

304

Addendum to Present Volume

304

Turtur arenicola

... 304

'5

LIST OF PLATES.

XCI\^ —Black Tern Frontispiece,

XC v.— White-winged Black Tern to face page 9

XC VI.— Gull-billed Tern n

XCVir.— Roseate Tern 25

JCC VIII.— Sabine's Gull 41

XCIX.— Black-headed Gull 59

C— Great Black-backed Gull 65

CI.— Lesser Black-backed Gull 67

GIL— Glaucous Gull 77

cm.— Richardson's Skua 97

CIV.— Razor-bill 107

CV.— Great Auk 113

CVI.— Common Guillemot 117

CVII.— Bridled Guillemot 119

CVIII.— Black Guillemot 123

CIX.— Little Auk 127

ex.— Puffin 131

CXTa.— Storm Petrel I37

CXI(^.— Fork-tailed Petrel 141

CXI^.— Madeira Petrel I43

CXL/.— White-bellied Petrel I49

CXI.— Fulmar , I53

CXIL— White-throated Grey Petrel 173

CXIIL— White-billed Uiver 183

CXIV.— Red-throated Diver 187

CXV.— Slavonian Grebe
CXVI.— Water-Rail...

CXVIL— Land- Rail ...

CXVIIL— Spotted Crake

CXIX.— Moor-Hen ...

CXX. — Common Coot

CXXI.— Wood-Pigeon

CXXIL— Stock-Dove.

201
217
221
227
23s
239
241

245

CXXIII.— Common Partridge 283

CXXIV. — American Laughing Gull 304

ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

BRITISH BIRDS

THE GULLS. ORDER LARIFORMES.

These birds, though at first sight very different in appearance
from the Plovers, are really allied to them. They possess cha-
racters, external and internal, which indicate close affinity ; but
they are easily recognised by the structure of their feet, the
Gulls being entirely web-footed, the Plovers not. The eggs,
however, of some of the smaller Terns are almost indistinguish-
able from some of the Plovers' eggs, and not only in the
colour of the latter, but in the form of the nest, there is so
much similarity that it is impossible to deny the close
relationship of Terns and Plovers. The latest, and at the
same time the greatest, authority on the Lariformes, Mr.
Howard Saunders, has given the following characters for the
Order in the British Museum " Catalogue of Birds " : — The
palate is " schizognathous " or split ; the nasals schizorhinal.
In the wing the fifth secondary is wanting, and the number of
cervical vertebrae is fifteen. The young are hatched covered
with down, and are able to run about in a few hours. Instead
of the four eggs which form the complement of those of the
Charadriiforj/ies, the number laid by the Gulls and Terns
seldom exceeds three. The Gulls are absolutely cosmopolitan
in range, and they are divided into two families, the Larid{B,
containing the Gulls and Terns, and the Stercorariidce, or Skuas.
The Skuas possess a bare wax-like base to the bill, such as
is seen in Birds of Prey and Parrots, but the Laridce have no
cere. The breast-bone in the Gulls and Terns has two notches

15 ^'

2 ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

on its posterior margin, whereas in the Skuas there is only
one ; the toes are more or less fully webbed, but the claws are
small and feeble, whereas in the Skuas the latter are terribly
curved and sharp.

The family Laridce is divided by Mr, Howard Saunders into
three sub-families, viz., the Terns i^Steriimce)^ the Skimmers or
Scissor-bills i^Rhynchopitue)^ and the Gulls i^LarincB). The
Scissor-bills are entirely tropical, and are found in South
America, Africa, and India. They are river Terns, with
a most peculiar bill, which is not only compressed like a knife-
blade, but the lower mandible is produced far beyond the
upper one. These Scissor bills only frequent rivers^ where
they nest on the sand-banks.

In the compilation of the following notes on the LaridcB
I have borrowed largely from the recent writings of Mr.
Saunders. He has so completely made the subject his own,
having studied the group minutely for the past thirty years,
that there seems to be little left for anyone to discover, as
far as the description of the plumages go. I have therefore
adopted his conclusions, and have quoted many of his notes
on the plumage and habits.

THE GULLS AND TERNS. FAMILY LARID^.

I have already alluded to the characters which distinguish
the La7'idce, from the Skuas, viz., the absence of a cere, the
double-notched sternum, the fully webbed toes, and the feeble
claws. The range of the family extends over the whole of the
world.

THE TERNS. SUB-FAMILY STERNIN^E.

Although it is very difficult to say where the Terns end and
the Gulls begin — for a large Tern is very like a small Gull —
Mr. Saunders has given a clear definition of the characters
which distinguish the three sub-families of the Laridce. To
the Scissor-bills {Rhynichopince) I have already referred, and
their peculiar bill separates them at once. The Terns differ
from the Gulls in the form of the bill, which is slender and
nearly straight, the two mandibles being almost equal in length.
The tail is slightly or distinctly forked.

BLACK TERN.

The Terns are nearly cosmopolitan in their distribution, as
they are found in most of the seas of the Old and New Worlds.
Many are marsh and river Terns, as will be seen in our
enumeration of the British species.

THE BLACK TERNS. GENUS HYDROCHELIDON.

Hydrochelido7i^ Boie, Isis, 1822, p. 563.

Type, H. nigra (Linn.).

The Black Terns are only four in number, and three of these
have occurred within our limits, namely, the White-winged
Black Tern, the Whiskered Tern, and the Black Tern. The
latter, H. tiigra, is an Old World species of wide range, and is
replaced in America by H. suriniunensis, which is a darker
bird with blacker feet, nesting in temperate North America,
and extending to Central and South America in winter.

I, THE BLACK TERN. HYDROCHELIDON NIGRA.

Sterna nig7'a^\Jvcm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 227 (1766); Seebohm, Hist.

Brit. B. iii. p. 254 (1885).
Hydrochelidon nigra, Macgili. Brit. B. v. p. 658 (1852); Dresser,

B. Eur. viii. p. 327, pi. 592 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 185 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 516

(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 617 (1889); Lilford, Col.

Fig. Brit. B. part xxxviii (1894) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit.

Mus. XXV. p. 17 (1896).

{Plate XCIV.)

Nestling. — Fawn colour above, with black markings arranged
in pairs on the back and sides of the rump, with a single patch
on the mantle ; the head with a line of black above each eye,
and a triple line on the nape ; sides of face white ; the under
surface of body clove-brown, becoming darker brown on the
throat and sides of body.

Youn^ in First Plumage. — Differs from the winter plumage
of the adult in having all the feathers of the back and wings
tipped with brown, this colour obscuring the whole of the

B 3

4 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

mantle ; the head and nape blackish, the forehead whiter ;
round the hind neck a broad collar of white ; sides of face and
under surface of body pure white, excepting for a patch of
ashy-brown on each side of the upper breast.

Adult Male. — General colour above slate-grey, a little paler on
the wing-coverts, the small coverts round the carpal bend of
the wing being white ; the bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills dark slaty-brown, externally frosted with light ashy-grey,
and paler grey on the inner web, the shafts of the primaries
white ; the upper tail-coverts and tail-feathers slightly paler
slate-colour and inclining to pearly grey; crown of head black,
overspreading the hind neck towards the mantle ; the under
surface of the body leaden-black, deepening on the throat and
chest ; thighs, sides of lower flanks, under tail-coverts, as well
as the under wing-coverts, white ; the lower greater coverts pale
peaily-grey hke the quill lining; axillaries leaden-grey; bill
black; feet reddish-brown. Total length, 9-5 inches; culmen,
1-25 ; wing, 8'4; tail, 3*i5 ; tarsus, o-C ; middle toe and claw,
0-85.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly paler in
colour. Total length, 9-6 inches; wing, S'l.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Distinguished by the white under
surface from the summer plumage, the forehead being white,
and the hinder crown and centre of the nape black, the feathers
having hoary-white margins ; sides of face, sides of neck, and
a collar round the hind- neck white, like the under surface of
the body.

Characters.— The adult Black Tern is easily recognised from
the other British species of Hydrochelidon, in summer plumage,
by its pale grey under wing-coverts, these being black m.
H. leiicoptera and white in H. hybrida. The grey upper
tail-coverts and tail distinguish it from H. leucoptera^ which is
black underneath, not dark leaden-grey as H. nigra is. From
H. hybrida it may be distinguished by its black bill and black
sides of the face.

In winter plumage the three species are more difficult to
discriminate, but H. nigra and H. hybrida have the tail grey
and the rump also grey like the back. H. nigra is a smaller

BLACK TERN. 5

bird than H. hybrida with a more slender bill, and the ^Yebs of
the feet are not so much incised.

Range in Great Britain. — The Black Tern is no longer known
as a breeding species in England, but in former times it used to
nest in the marshes of the east coast. But for the draining of
the fen-lands the species might yet be found nesting, and I
have myself seen birds in full breeding plumage, passing north
along the shores of the Kentish coast in May. According to
Mr. Howard Saunders, the last recorded eggs were taken in
Norfolk in 1858, though early in the century the nests of the
" Blue Darr," as the bird was called, might have been found in
hundreds on the alder swamps. In the autumn the birds
return southwards, and during the gales which then frequently
prevail, they are driven inland along the rivers, so that I have
more than once been fishing on the Thames at Cookham, in
September, with several of these pretty birds flying round me,
during the prevalence of a strong easterly gale. The species
occurs much more rarely on the west coast of England than
upon the east, and is found only as a straggler in the northern
parts of the British Island, and as a rare autumn visitor to
Ireland.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Black Tern breeds in
suitable localities throughout Europe, south of 6o°N. lat, and as
far eastwards as Western Turkestan. It winters in Africa, reaching
to Loango on the west coast and the shores of Abyssinia on the
east.

Habits.— When seen in spring, proceeding northward, the
Black Tern follows the usual habits of the family, flying at a little
distance from the shore, just out of gun shot, and dipping at
intervals into the sea to capture some small prey and then
beating its way onward. Under such circumstances I have
seen it both in spring and autumn on the coasts of England,
but in its usual haunts on the Continent it is an inland species,
and I saw it in the Hanzag marshes in Hungary in May,
where it was nesting. When disturbed the birds fly up, uttering
a harsh note like the syllable " crick " ; but they have another
note more drawn out, which Mr. Seebohm very well expresses by
Ke-e-e. The food of the Black Tern consists of small fishes,
but it also feed on leeches, worms, and even on insects, for it

6 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIERARY.

has been known to capture dragon-flies on the wing, and,
according to Mr. Howard Saunders, it has been seen by Mr.
F. S. Mitchell to " swoop down on the field-crickets {Acheta
campesfris) during their momentary appearance at the entrances
of their burrows."

Nest. — The Black Tern does not begin to nest before the
end of May, and it then breeds in colonies in the marshes or
by shallow pools. The nest is a substantial structure of
decaying plants and weeds, on heaps of wrack which rise and
fall with the water, or on the firmer hummocks of the bog.

Eggs. — Three in number only. Ground colour varying from
deep clay- colour or pale chocolate to greenish-grey and stone-
colour or buff, the markings generally consisting of black
blotches, which are mostly confluent. Sometimes the markings
are smaller and take the form of scattered dots or scribblings.
The underlying spots are grey and are not very distinct. In the
Seebohm collection in the British Museum there are some
specimens in which the spots and blotches are perceptibly
rufous, though generally they range from a dark chocolate-
brown to absolute black. Axis, 1-3-1 -45 inch; diam., 0.9
-1-05.

IL THE WHISKERED TERN. HYDROCHELIDON HYBRIDA.

Sterna hybrida, Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. ii. p. 338 (18 it);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 260 (1885).

Hydrochelidon leucopareia (Natt) ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. d^T^
(1852).

Hydrochelidon hybrida, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 315, pis. 588,
589 (1887) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 184 (1883) ; Saun-
ders, ed.Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 527 (1884); id. Man. Brit.
B. p. 621 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part, xxviii.
(1894) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p 10 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above light slaty-grey ; lower
back, rump, upper tail-coverts and tail of the same colour as
the rest of the back, the outermost tail-feather being white
along the outer web ; wing-coverts like the back ; quills dusky,
frosted with pearly-grey on the outer webs ; the shafts of the
primaries white, the outer ones with the greater part of the

WHISKERED TERN. 7

inner webs also white; crown of head and nape black ; under
surface of body slaty-grey, deepening into blackish towards
the abdomen and paling into white towards the chin ; sides of
face from the base of the bill to the sides of the neck white,
forming a band which contrasts strongly with the black head
and grey cheeks ; under tail-coverts, under wing-coverts, and
axillaries, pure white or with a slight tinge of grey on the latter;
" bill blood-red ; feet vermilion, drying to orange colour "
{Saunders). Total length, 10-5 inches; culmen, 1-3; wing,
9-3; tail, 3-45; tarsus, 0-9.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male, but somewhat paler in
colour. Total length, 97 inches; wing, 8-9.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage in
being white underneath, and in having a white collar round the
hind neck ; crown of head white, mottled and spotted with
black on the hinder crown and nape, and the upper surface
paler grey.

Young. — Differs from the winter plumage of the adult in
having the hinder part of the head blacker, and the upper
surface of the body mottled with large or small black spots
which are varied with sandy-buff spots or bars.

Nestling. — Sandy-buff, inclining to golden-buff on the fore-
head and mantle ; the upper surface prettily striped or spotted
with regular lines of black ; the throat sooty black ; rest of
under parts white, the sides of the body being sandy-buff.

Characters. — The adult bird is easily distinguished from
H. leucoptera by the grey upper and under tail-coverts, and
from H. nigra by the red bill and white chin and sides of face,
as well as by the white under wing-coverts. In winter plumage
the species may be distinguished from the adult of H. leucoptera
by its grey tail, and from the young of the latter species, which
has a grey tail, by the absence of white on the rump, which is
to be found in the young of the White-winged Black Tern. In
winter plumage H, hyhrida has a grey rump, like the back, and
it thus resembles the winter dress of H. nigra., but it is a
larger bird than the latter, has a stouter bill, and has the webs
of the feet much incised.

5 ALLENS NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Rang-e in Great Britain. — The Whiskered Tern is an acci-
dental visitor to the British Islands, and the occurrences of
the species are only some hnlf-dozen at number, specimens
having been obtained in Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire,
Norfolk, and Yorkshire; while Ireland has one record from
the River Liffey. One of these birds was obtained in May,
another on Hickling Brond in June, and the remainder in
autumn.

Range Outside the British Islands. — Tliis is a species of
Southern Europe, rarely reaching Northern Germany aud the
British Islands ; but it extends eastwards at about the same
latitude to China, and visits Africa, India (breeding in both
these countries), and the Malayan Archipelago, as far as
Australia, in winter. It apparently wanders to the eastern coasts
of America occasionally, as the British Museum possesses a
specimen procured by Sir R. Schomburgk in Barbados.

Habits. — Like the preceding species, this is a Marsh Tern,
and in habits it resembles //. nigra^ the food being the same
in both species. It nests in colonies.

Nest. — This is generally a mass of weeds, and is often found
floating on the surface of the water. In Southern Spain,
where large colonies of the Whiskered Tern are met with.
Major Willoughby Verner visited a breeding -colony of these
birds at La Janda, on the yth of May, 1875, and found
several hundred nests floating on the top of the water ; they
were simple platforms of reeds and rushes, and were kept from
drifting to some extent by the young rushes growing up in the
water. Only two nests contained a single egg. Five days
later over thirty nests contained eggs. In the interval between
the visits a strong wind had arisen, and had blown away many
of the Terns' nests along the water, till they were packed in a
dense mass on the lee side of the Laguna.*

Eg-gs. — Three in number. Prevailing ground-colour green-
ish-grey, sometimes clay-colour, the markings of the eggs
being similar in character to those of the allied Terns, but
rather more scattered and distinct, while in some examples the

* Irby, Orn. Straits Gibraltar, 2nd ed., p. 293.

, I

hw^j¥

If-.

WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN. 9

spotting and scribbling is very minute, and the underlying
grey spots are more distinct than in eggs of H. kiicoptera.
Axis, i*4-i'7 inch; diam., \'\-\2.

III. THE WHITE-WINGED BLACK TERN. HYDROCHELIDON
LEUCOPTERA.

Stenia leucoptera^ Meisner & Schinz, Vog. Schweiz, p. 264

(1815); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 257 (1885).
HydrochcUdon hucoptera, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 661 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 321, pis. 590, 591 (1875);

B. O.U. List Brit. B. p 185 (1883); Saunders, cd.

Yanell's Brit. B. iii. p. 552 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 619 (1889) ; Liiford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix.

(1894); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 6 (1896).

{Plate XCV.)

Adult Male. — General colour above dark slate-colour ; head
and neck black, this colour overspreading the mantle ; lower
back, rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ; lesser
coverts round the bend of the wing white, the rest of the
wing-coverts pearly- grey, the innermost greater coverts rather
darker and more slaty-grey ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills dusky, externally frosted with pearly-grey, the inner
primaries being almost entirely of this colour, the innermost
secondaries darker slate-grey ; entire under surface of bod)'',
from the chin to the vent, black, including the under wing-
coverts and axillaries ; vent, under tail-covcFts, and edge of
wing pure white ; " bill livid red ; feet orange red '\H. Saunders),
Total length, 9*0 inches; culmen, 0-95; wing, 8'o; tail, 2*7;
tarsus, 07.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in colour. Total length,
87 inches ; wing, ^•'Ty.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in being pearly-grey above and white below, a collar round the
hind neck and forehead also white ; fore part of crown mottled
with black, which is much more apparent on the nape, and
forms a spot on the ear-coverts.

lO ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIliRARY.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but
browner, by reason of the brown tips to all the feathers of the
upper surface ; a black patch on the hinder crown and nape as
well as a black spot on the ear- coverts, the latter much
more distinct.

Characters. — In summer plumage the present species is easily
distinguished from its British allies by its white upper tail-
coverts and tail, its black under surface and under wing-covcrts,
and by the white wing-coverts along the carpal bend of the
wing. In winter plumage the adult bird is still known by its
white tail, but young birds have grey tails like the winter plum-
age of the other species of Hydrochelidon. In a properly
prepared skin, however, there is always some white on the
rump, i?itervening between the grey of the back and the grey of
the tail, in H. leucoptera.

Range in Great Britain. — The White-winged Black Tern has
occurred many times on our southern and eastern coasts in
summer, and Mr. Howard Saunders states that he knows of
only two occurrences of the bird in autumn, one having been
killed near Ilfracombe in North Devonshire in November,
while another was shot in Dublin Bay in October, 1841. Two
others have been shot in Ireland in spring.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species nests in
the marshes of Central and Southern Europe and throughout
temperate Asia to China, wintering all over Africa, certain parts
of India and Ceylon, and throughout the Malayan Archipelago
to Australia and New Zealand. It occasionally wanders to
America, where it has been recorded from Wisconsin and from
Barbados.

Habits. — These appear to be very similar to those of the
Black Tern, in company with which it nests in Central Europe,
but in Southern Russia Mr. Howard Saunders says that large
and distinct colonies are formed. The flight is said by the
same observer to be more rapid and its note to be harsher than
that of H\ ?iigra, but its food is similar to that of the last-
named species.

Nest. — Similar to that of the Black Tern.

'i

GULL-BILLED TERN. II

Esgs. — Three in number. Ground-colour deep clay oi
stone-buff with an olive shade, spotted with chocolate-brown,
deepening to blackish and forming irregular blotches on
different parts of the egg, as much in the middle as towards
the end of the latter. The underlying marks of grey are not
very evident. Axis, i'35-i'45; diam., o-95-i-o5.

THE GULL-BILLED TERNS. GENUS GELOCHELIDON.

Gelochelido7t, Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 774 (1831.)

Type, G. anglica (Mont.)

In this genus the outer tail-feathers are very pointed, and
exceed the others in length. The bill is very stout and obt^jse ;
the tarsus is longer than in most of the Terns, and exceeds
the middle toe and claw in length ; the tail is short, being
less than half the length of the wing.

The single species, G. anglica^ is found in the temperate and
warm portions of the Atlantic Ocean on both sides, also in the
Indian Ocean and Australian seas, but it is not known from
the Pacific side of America.

L THE GULL-BILLED TERN. GELOCHELIDON ANGLICA.

Sterna anglica, Mont. Orn, Diet. Suppl. (18 13); Dresser, B.

Eur. viii. p. 295, pi. 585 (1877); B. O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 182 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 531

(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 263 (188^5);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 623 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xxix. (1894).
Gelochelidon anglica, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 666 (1852);

Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 25 (1896).

^Plate XCVI.)

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, including the
wings and tail, the outer feathers of the latter inclining to
greyish-white on the outer webs; quills darker ashy-grey,
frosted with pearly-grey externally, the primaries with white
shafts and a great deal of white along the inner web;
secondaries narrowly edged with white at the tips ; head and

T2 ALLEN S NATURALLST S LIBRARY.

nape glossy-black, continued into a nuchal crest and extending
across the upper part of the lores to the base of the nostrils ;
lower part of the lores, sides of face, and entire under surface
of body white, including the under wing-coverts and axillaries ;
" bill black, occasionally reddish at the base of the lower
mandible ; tarsi and toes black with a reddish tinge ; iris hazel-
brown " (//. Saiindo's). Total length, 14-5 inches; exposed
part of culmen, i-6; wing, 12*5 ; tail, 5*0; tarsus 1-5.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but somewhat snaller and
the bill not quite so robust. Total length, 14-0 inches ; wing,

T2*0.

Adult in Winter Plumage.— Differs from the summer plumage
in being slightly paler, the wings more frosted with hoary-grey,
and the white on the outer tail-feathers more distinct than in
summer ; crown of head white, the hinder crown narrowly
streaked with black and mottled with black on the nape ; in
front of the eye a black spot.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but the
streaks on the head greyish-brown and not so distinct, the
whole of the grey colour of the upper surface obscured by ashy-
brown or brownish-buff, the feathers being mottled with a
sub-terminal bar of darker brown.

Nestling. — Stone-buff, with black streaks and spots along the
back and on the head and sides of the crown ; under surface
of body dull white.

Characters. — These are given under the heading of the
genus

Range in Great Britain.— The Gull-billed Tern is only an
accidental visitor to England, having occurred several times in
spring and summer, principally in Norfolk, but also at different
places on the south coast, the most northerly occurrences
having taken place near Blackpool in Lancashire, and near
Leeds in Yorkshire. One specimen has been recorded
from Belfast Lough in Ireland, but having been submitted
to Mr. Saunders, he found it to be an Arctic Tern !

Range outside tlie British Islands. — In the Old World the Gull-

GIANT TERNS. 1 3

billed Tern nests with greater or less frequency throughout the
Mediterranean region and occurs accidentally in more northern
localities, though it breeds regularly on the western coast of
Denmark and the island of Sylt. Its range extends through
temperate Asia to Southern China, whence it is found through
the Malayan Archipelago to Australia, breeding in the latter
continent. In North America it occurs on the eastern side
from New Jersey southwards, reaching to the Argentine
Republic, but not occuring on the Pacific side except on the
coast of Guatemala.

Habits. — The food of this species consists of small fish, frogs,
and Crustacea, and it also feeds on grasshoppers, locusts, and
beetles, besides other flying insects. During the breeding
season Mr. Saunders says that the note is like the syllables
che-ah^ but at other times the bird utters a laughing af-af-af
like a Gull.

Nest. — Seebohm visited a colony of Gull-billed Terns on
an island in a lagoon off the coast of Asia Minor. The nests
were either a natural depression in the sand, or consisted of a
slight hollow made by the birds themselves, with a few bits of
seaweed or dead grass as an apology for a nest.

Eg-gs. — Generally two, sometimes three in number, and inter-
mediate in character between the eggs of Gulls and Terns.
The general colour is a pale stone-buff, occasionally with an
olive-greenish tinge, the spots never very large and distributed
over the egg in tolerably equal profusion and seldom forminjj
blotches of any size. The underlying markings are as large
and almost as much in evidence as the dark overlying ones,
sometimes being even more distinct than the latter. Axis,
I •8-2-5 inches; diam., rsS-i'SS-

THE GIANT TERNS. GENUS HYDROPROGNE.

Hydroprogne^ Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 91 (1829).

Type, H. caspia (Pall.).

This genus is represented by a single species, of nearly
cosmopolitan range. It is distinguished by its large size and
blood-red bill, The outer tail-feathers are pointed, and exceed

14 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

the Others in length. The tarsus is short, being less than the
middle toe and claw in length, and the tail is very short, being
less than one-third of the length of the wing.

L THE CASPL\N TERN. HYDROPROGNE CASPLV.

Sterna caspia, Pall. Nov. Comm. Petrop. xiv. i. p. 582, tab. xxii.

fig. 2 (1770) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 289, pi. 584 (1877) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 182 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's

Brit. B. iii. p. 536 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii.

p. 268(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 625 (1889);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxviii. (1894).
Sylochelidon caspia, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 626 (1852).
Hydroprogne caspia, Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 32

(1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, the rump and
upper tail-coverts like the back and hardly any paler in tint ;
wing-coverts like the back, the bastard-wing and primary-
coverts rather paler grey and more frosted in appearance ;
primaries grey with white shafts, the greater part of the webs
frosted, the inner web blackish along the inner margin, this
blackish shade increasing in extent towards the outermost
primaries, and occupying the entire inner web of the first one ;
secondaries like the back, with the inner webs slightly more
dusky-grey ; tail pearly-grey, with white shafts to the feathers,
the outermost pointed and only slightly exceeding the others
in length ; crown of head and nape glossy black, the crest not
elongated ; this black extending below the eyes in a straight
line from the base of the upper mandible across the lores ;
remainder of the lores, sides of face, ear-coverts, and a spot
under the eyes white, like the entire under surface of the body;
axillaries and under wing-crests white, the inner face of the
primaries distinctly blackish ; "bill vermilion-red, sometimes
horn-coloured at tip ; tarsi and toes black " (^Saunders). Total
length, 19 inches; culmen, 2 "65 ; wing, 16*5 ; tail, 5*5 ; tarsus,
1-8.

Adult Female. — Not to be distinguished from the male in
colour, but with a weaker and less brilliantly coloured bill.
Total length, 19 inches; culmer 2'5 ; wing, i6-6 ; tail, 6-2 ;
tarsus, I "65.

CASPIAN TERN. 15

Adult in Winter Plumage.— Similar to the summer plumage,
but distinguished by the colour of the crown, which, mstead of
being wholly black, is white, with broad central streaks of black,
the sides of the face being similarly marked.

Immature Birds.— Resemble the winter plumage of the adults
as regards the crown of the head, but the black round the eye
and above the ear-coverts is uniform. The back is pearly-grey
in contrast to the lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts,
which are whiter. On the wings, tail, and upper surface of the
body, in places, are blacker bars or arrow-head markmgs,
indicating immaturity.

Nestling: (one day old).— Above, pale buff, inconspicuously
mottled with dull brown ; under parts dull white. Older nesthngs
show a greyer tint above {Saunders).

CHaracters.— The Caspian Tern is distinguished by its large
size and stout red bill. Other characters are given under the
heading of the genus.

Range in Great Britain.— Nine specimens of the Caspian Tern
have been recorded from Norfolk, and others have been seen
off the eastern and southern coasts of England from Yorkshire
and Lincolnshire and Dorset. Mr. E. Bidwell informed Mr.
Howard Saunders that he had seen an individual of this species
off the Fame Islands on the 6th of June, 1880. It has not yet
been recorded from Scotland or Ireland, and the number of
specimens noted in the United Kingdom is under twenty.

Range Outside the British Islands.— The present species is found
throughout the Mediterranean countries, and its breeding range
in Europe extends to about 60° N. lat , as it nests on the
islands of Sylt and other localities in the Baltic. Mr. Howard
Saunders believes that it may also breed, or recently bred, on
the Dutch coast. It breeds in many parts of Asia, but does not
reach to Japan, and it also inhabits Australia and New
Zealand. To many countries bordering the Indian Ocean the
Caspian Tern is only a winter visitor, as it is to Africa, but it
nests along the shores of the Persian Gulf and in Ceylon
In North America it occurs on both coasts, from a httle beyond
the Arctic Circle to Florida on the Atlantic side and to Cali-
fornia on the west.

10 AI-LEN S NATURALIST'S LIBRARY.

Habits, — This species, says Mr. Saunders, " is nearly as
partial to brackish lakes as to the sea-shore, and when
searching for food it has a characteristic habit of keeping its
bill pointed downwards, almost at a right angle to its body."
As might be expected from such a powerful bird, its nature is
bold, and it makes a vigorous out-cry when its nest is attacked,
some of the birds swooping down within a few yards of the
intruder's hend, while the rest of the colony fly round in the
air above, and add their cries to the general expostulation.
Mr. H. Parker thus describes his experience of the nesting of
the Caspian Tern in Ceylon : —

"The birds at first circled round for a short time, and
afterw^ards joined a large party of other Terns at a small neigh-
bouring bank, from which some of them made frequent sallies,
flying over my head a few times and then returning. Iheir
cry was a hoarse croak or a scream.

" Later in the day I found a pair evidently breeding at
another bank beyond that at which my expedition ended, but
I could not spare time to visit it. They came out boldly to
attack my men, and made very determined swoops, often
coming within three feet of my head. They then rose verti-
cally above me for fifty or sixty feet, and after flying back
towards the nests returned to renew the assaults. Ihe more
timid of the birds, which I presume was the female, occasion-
ally settled on the nest for a short time, while the male was
engaged in bullying me. As I told him at the time, it was
nothing else, for I had not attempted to molest him, and the
nest was certainly quite half a mile away."

The food of the Caspian Tern seems to consist almost
entirely of fish, but it is said to rob other birds' nests of their
eggs, and to devour young birds as well.

Nest. — A slight depression in the sand, occasionally lined
with pieces of shell or a few bents.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, laid in May or June. There
is considerable similarity in the eggs of the Caspian Tern to
those of the Gull-billed Tern, though they are, of course, much
larger. The general colour is greyish or stone-buff, sometimes
approaching buffy-white, and the markings consist of scattered
spots, seldom confluent, of chocolate-brown or even blackish,

COMMON TERN. 17

while occasionally they are pale olive-brown. The underlying-
spots are purplish-grey, and are always distinct. Axis, 2 -3-2 '6
inches; diam. 17-1-85.

THE TRUE TERNS. GENUS STERNA.

Sterna, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 227 (1766).

Type, probably S. fluviatilis (Naum).

Like the preceding genera, the Terns have the outermost
tail-feathers much longer than the rest, and pointed. They
differ from Gelochelidon in having a short tarsus, which measures
less than the middle toe and claw, and in the case of the genus
Sterna never exceeds the latter. The tail, according to Mr.
Howard Saunders, is at least half, and generally more than
half, the length of the wing. The True Terns are also remarkable
for their compressed and slender bill.

They are world-wide in their distribution, and are almost
exclusively maritime in their haunts.

Intermediate between the Caspian Terns and the genus
Sterna is the Indian genus Seena, which has a single river-
haunting species, Seena seena (Sykes), remarkable for its stout
bill, which has the genys very short, and its long tail, which is
more than three-fourths the length of the wing.

I. THE COMMON TERN. STERNA FLUVIATILIS.

Sterna fluviatilis, Naum. Isis, 18 19, pp. 1847, 1848; Dresser,
B. Eur. viii. p. 263, pi 580 (1872) ; B. O. U. List. Brit. B.
p. 180 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 549
(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 631 (1889); Lilford, Col.
Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (189 1) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus.
XXV. p. 54 (1896).

Sterna hiriindo, Lath.; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 638 (1852);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 280 (1885).

Adult Males. — General colour about pearl-grey, including the
wing-coverts and scapulars, the latter white at the ends ; rump
and upper tail-coverts white ; primary- coverts pearl-grey, with
the inner webs more dusky; primaries dark grey externally,
with white shafts, accompanied by a blacker border along its
15 c^

1 8 Allen's naturalist's library.

inner aspect, conspicuous on the inner v^-eb, to the tip
of which it extends, becomes there frosted with grey, and
ascends along the margin of the inner web for some Httle
distance; the first primary blackish along the whole of the
outer web; secondaries grey, with dusky shaft-lines, white along
the inner webs and at the tips of the innermost quills ; central
tail-feathers white, the rest white with a grey shade on the
outer web, increasing towards the outer ones, the external long
feathers having a dusky blackish outer web ; crown of head
and nape black, this being drawn through the upper half of the
lores and along the sides of the crown above the ear-covcrts ;
sides of face from the lower portion of the lores, and reaching
to the eye and over the ear-coverts, cheeks, and throat pure
white j remainder of the under surface of the body, from the
fore-neck downwards, delicate lavender grey ; under tail-covert^,
under wing-coverts and axillaries pure white ; "bill coral-red,
the extreme tip horn-colour ; feet coral-red ; iris dark brown.
Total length, 15 inches; culmen, I'SS ; wing, lo'S ; tail, 27;
outer tail-feathers, 77; tarsus, 0-85.

Adult Female. — Similar in colour to the male. Total length,
12-5 inches; culmen, i'35; wing, 107; tail, 57; tarsus, 07.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in wanting the black cap, the head being black behind, but
with the forehead and crown streaked and mottled with white;
the under surface of the body is paler and shows less grey ; the
bill and feet much duller in colour.

Immature Birds in First Winter. — P.esemble the winter plumage
of the adults, but are distinguislied by the forehead being white,
and by a dark grey band along the marginal upper wing-coverts.
The under surface of the body is enlirely white.

Nestling. — Brownish -buff, or stone-buff streaked and spotted
with black, without any very distinct pattern, the head lighter
than the back, and more minutely spotted ; edge of wing and
under parts white, browner on the belly and vent; lores, sides
of face, and throat brown. As the nestling grows in size the
black pattern on the upper parts becomes more distinct, and
the throat fades to a light-brown colour.

After the downy stage, the feathers of the upper surface are

COMMON TERN. 1 9

all mottled with sandy buff tips, before which is a distinct bar
of blackish.

Range in Great Britain. — I cannot do better than quote the
remarks of Mr. Saunders as to the distribution of the present
species in the British Isles. He writes : — " Broadly speaking,
I believe that the Common Tern is the predominant species
along the shores of the Channel, and on the west side of
Great Britain as far north as the Isle of Skye ; while on the
east it is found from Kent to the Moray Firth, and was the
only species that I observed near Nairn during August, 1885.
Continuing northwards, w^e find it yielding numerically to the
Arctic Tern, and showing a liking for fresh-water lochs or
CGtuaries rather than for exposed islands, though Mr. Harvie-
Brown states that in 1885 it was nesting abundantly at the west
end of the Pentland Skerries, while the eastern was occupied
by a colony of Arctic Terns. I have no conclusive evidence
of the occurrence of the Common Tern in the Shetlands,
Orkneys, or Outer Hebrides." Mr. R. J. Ussher says that
in Ireland it breeds on islands off the coasts of most of the
maritime counties, and also on lakes in Londonderry, Antrim,
Tyrone, Armagh, Fermanagh, Cavan, Longford, Roscommon,
Mayo, and Leitrim.

Range Outside the British Islands. — The Common Tern is found
breeding on the coasts, rivers, and inland lakes of nearly every
country in Europe, from Norway southwards, and the same
may be said of the whole of Central Asia to the highlands of
Cashmere and Thibet. In winter its range extends to India
and Ceylon, and the coasts of Western and Southern Africa.
It also inhabits temperate North America, breeding as far south
as Texas, visiting the West Indies in winter, whence it also
extends to Brazil. It is almost unrecorded from the Pacific
coast of North America, but an immature bird w^as shot by Mr.
Osbert Salvin at San Jose de Guatemala in December, 1862.

Habits. — The motions of this pretty bird in the air are full of
grace, and as it flies along the sea-shore at a little distance from
the land, it looks like a slender and graceful Gull, not in the
least adopting the swift motions of a Swallow, although " Sea-
swallow " is the name generally applied to it. The Common

c 2

20 ALLEN'S NATURALIST'S LILRARY.

Tern breeds in colonies, usually on a shingly beach, and the
whereabouts of the eggs or young can generally be discovered
by the anxiety betrayed by the old birds, who hover over the
spot and keep up a loud chorus of disapproval at the intrusion.
The young are so like the surrounding shingle in general
appearance that they are very difficult to distinguish, especi-
ally as they do not run along the ground like the nestlings of
the Sand-Plovers, but are fed by the parent-birds for some
days at least. The old birds bring fish to their little ones,
and have been known to drop them near to the latter, despite
the presence of a stranger in their midst.

The food of the Common Tern consists of small coal-fish,
sand-eels, shrimps, and small Crustacea ; and it is a very pretty
sight to see a flock of Terns fishing above a shoal of small
fry and dipping after their prey. In the autumn, before their
departure for the south, flocks assemble on the sand or shingly
beaches, and rest quietly during the time that the tide is out.
I have seen many large assemblages of these birds on the
beach near Lydd in Kent, and at the incoming of the tide
into Romney Hoy, especially if this took place towards even-
ing, large flocks of terns would often follow the rush of the
water as it entered the principal channel, and a constant
chorus of their creaking note, like the syllables kree-e-e, was
kept up, until at times there was a perfect babel of sound.
The birds were apparently feeding on the small fish which
came in with the tide.

Nest. — A hollow in the sand or shingle; or on the bare earth,
when the birds breed at a little distance from the water.
Sometimes a few stems of grass are added as a lining. Mr.
Robert Read sends me the accompanying note : — " The nesting
habits of this bird differ much according to site. When the
nest is made on the sea-shore it usually consists simply of a
slight hollow scraped in the sand or shingle without any lining
materials whatever. When, however, the nest is built inland,
on swampy ground, it consists of a more or less substantial
structure of dried grasses and stalks, doubtless to keep the
eggs out of the damp."

Eggs.— Mr. Read adds : — " Three is the usual number of
eggs laid, but on more than one occasion I have taken four

ARCTIC TERN. 21

eggs from a nest, all apparently laid by the same bird." The
general colour of the eggs varies from stone-colour to ochreous-
buff or olive buff with spots or drops of black often merging
into confluent blotches, the underlying spots being faint
purplish-grey and not very distinct. Sometimes the variation
in the depth of the colour of the eggs is very marked, and
the ground-colour is so deep a rufous-brown that the black
markings are scarcely perceptible. The markings are generally
distributed over the surface of the egg, but are sometimes con-
gregated in confluent blotches round the larger end. Axis, i '35 -
1-75 inches; diam., i'i-i'3.

II. THE ARCTIC TERN. STERNA MACRURA.

Siei'na inacmra^ Naum. Isis, 18 19, p. 1847 ; B. O. U. List.

Brit. B. p. 180 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B.

iii. p. 553 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. (,2>?> (1889);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxviii. (1894); Saunders,

Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 62 (1896.)
Sterna ^/r/zV^;, Temm. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 643 (1852);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 284 (1885.)
Sterna hirundo^ Miiller (nee Lath.) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii.

P- 255. Pl- 579 (1872.)

Adult Male. — Similar to S. Jtiwiatilis, but distinguished by
its entirely red bill with no dark tips, and by the much narrower
and less distinct dark edging along the inner aspect of the
white shaft of the primaries. According to Mr. Howard
Saunders the tarsus is shorter than in the Common Tern, and
does not exceed the length of the middle toe without the
claw ; " bill blood-red ; feet coral-red ; iris dark-brown."
Total length, i4"5 inches; culmen, 1-5; wings, io*8 ; tail, 7*0;
tardus, o'65.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but with the outer
feathers rather shorter. Total length, 14 inches; wing, io"5.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in wanting the black cap; the forehead and crown being
mottled with white, and the hinder crown and nape from the
eyes backwards black ; under parts whiter, with scarcely any
grey shade on the breast ; bill and feet duller.

22 ALI.EN'S naturalist's LIBRARY.

Immature Birds in Winter. — These resemble in colour the
winter plumage of the adult, but, according to Mr. Howard
Saunders, have the forehead and crown nearly white, a dark
grey hmid on the upper 7ving- coverts^ more grey on the outer
webs of the tail-feathers, the under parts white, and the bill
and feet nearly black.

Nestling. — Mr. Saunders remarks that there is scarcely any
difference between the nestlings of the Arctic and Common
Terns, but the former has a tendency to more pronounced
black on the throat ; the upper parts have a buffish ground-
colour which seems to be very variable in tint.

Young-. — Can always be distinguished from the old ones by
the sandy-buff bars on the upper surface. The bill is yellow
at the base, with the tip horn-colour ; the feet (says Mr.
Saunders) are yellow up to October, afterwards browner. The
forehead is white, the occiput blackish, the sides of the neck
and flanks tinged with buff, and there is a considerable amount
of grey on the outer webs of the tail-feathers.

Range in Great Britain.— The breeding range of the Arctic
Tern is more northerly than that of the Common Tern, as it
nests from the Humber to the Fame Islands northwards
along the east coast of Scotland to the Orkneys and the
Shetlands, being the only species of Tern which breeds in
the latter group of islands. On the west coast of Scotland it
breeds as far south as the Isle of Skye, and in former times
it was known to do so as far south as Cornwall. In its
southern nesting area, however, it seems to be out-numbered
by the Common Tern. In Ireland, Mr. R. J. Ussher says it
" breeds on islands off the coast, usually in company with the
Common Tern, in Donegal, Antrim, Down, Dublin, Wexford,
Cork, Kerry, Galway, and Mayo. A few breed on an inland
lake. Lough Carra, in Mayo." Along the shores of Great
Britain it occurs everywhere on migration, but seldom appears
inland.

Range outside the British Islands. — The distribution of the
Arctic Tern is thus summed up by Mr. Saunders in the
twenty-fifth volume of the " Catalogue of Birds " : — " Circum-
polar and northern regions of the Old and New AVorlds,

ROSEATE TERN. 23

breeding from 82° N. lat. (or higher ? ) down to about 50° N.
in Europe and 42° in America. In winter southwards to the
coasts and waters of Peru, ChiH, Brazil, Africa, and even to
66° S. lat. in the Southern Ocean."

Habits. — In its mode of life the present species differs but
little from the Common Tern. It is very bold when its nests
are in danger, and not only drives off Gulls and Skuas, but will
also swoop at any man who approaches the vicinity of its nest.
The young birds assemble in flocks after the nesting season,
and Mr. E. W. Nelson says that in Alaska, towards the middle
of August, they are very common on the marshes, and follow
an intruder about from place to place, uttering an odd, squeaky
imitation of the notes of the adult birds. They heedlessly
hover close over bead, and the expression of innocent wonder
in their soft black eyes makes them amusing little creatures to
watch.

Nest. — A hollow in the sand without linings; but when
marshy ground is selected Mr. Nelson says that the nest is
lined with a few grass stems. Sometimes the eggs are laid on
the bare rock just beyond the reach of the waves.

E^gs. — Two or three in number, the former being the usual
complement, according to my correspondent, Mr. Robert
Read. They are rather smaller than those of the Common
Tern, and present more variations in colour. While many have
the characteristic spots and blotches of a similar aspect to that
of the eggs of Sterna fluviatilis^ there is, in a general sense, a
distinctly more spotted appearance. Axis, i'4-i'7 inch:
diam., ii-i*2.

III. THE ROSEATE TERN. STERNA DOUGALLI.

Sterna doiigalli, Mont. Orn. Diet. Suppl. (1813) ; Dresser, B.
Eur. viii. p. 273, pi. 581 (1876) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B.
p. 181 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 544
(1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 277 (1885) ;
Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 629 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig.
Brit. B, part xxviii. (1894); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus,
XXV. p. 70 (1896).

24 Allen's naturalist's lii^rary.

Sterna inacdougaUi, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 648 (1852).
{Plate XCVIL)

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey,
slightly paler on the rump and upper tail-coverts and inner
secondaries, which are margined with white at the ends ; wing-
coverts like the back, as also the bastard-wing and primary-
coverts ; quills pearly-grey, the primaries edged on the inner
web and the secondaries on the outer web, with white ; quills
pearly-grey, darker on the inner webs, which have rather broad
borders of white ; the three outer primaries with white shafts,
emphasized on the first by a blackish outer w^eb, and along the
inner edge of the white shaft by a line of blackish, becoming
dark grey towards the end of the feathers ; the second and
third primaries with a dark grey and broader line along the
inner length of the shaft, but the outer web frosted with pearly-
grey ; all the other primaries white-shafted, with darker grey
on the inner web, broader but not inclining to blackish ;
secondaries pearly-grey, with w^hite tips and a good deal of
white on the inner web ; tail-feathers pearly-grey, almost white,
the long outer feathers nearly entirely white ; crown of head
and nape black, with a very distinct pointed crest ; hind-neck,
sides of face, and under surface of the body white, with a
beautiful rosy blush, which disappears in time; the line of
black and white on the sides of the head very sharply defined,
and extending across the lower half of the lores, below the
eye, above the ear-coverts ; " bill orange at the base, the
anterior part from the angle black ; tarsi and toes orange-red ;
by the end of May, in the northern hemisphere, the amount
of black on the bill has largely increased " (Saunders). Total
length, 137 inches; culmen, 1*45; wing, 8-8; tail, 5-9; tarsus,
0-85.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 13-1
inches; wing, 8-5.

Adult in Winter Plumag-e. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but differing in the forehead being spotted with white, the
under parts nearly white, with little pink tint ; bill nearly
black (Sannders).

Young. — Differs from the adult in being mottled with a black
sub-terminal bar to the feathers of the upper surface, quills.

ROSEATE TERN. 25

and tail-feathers; a distinct white collar round the hind-neck;
the crown of the head and nape blackish streaked with white,
the forehead whiter and streaked with black ; lores and sides
of hinder crown blackish ; marginal lesser wing-coverts black,
forming a bar ; " bill black ; feet grey ; iris black " {^Dr.
Coppinger).

Young in First Winter Plumage.— Grey above like the adult in
winter plumage, but distinguished by the dark band along the
marginal upper wing coverts ; the head and nape black, the
forehead white.

Cliaracters. — The Roseate Tern may be recognised from the
two preceding species by its long and slender bill, which is
orange at the base and black at the end, but more especially
by the inner webs of the primaries being white to the tips.

Range in Great Britain. — The present species formerly bred in
small colonies in various places off the coasts of the British
Isles. The best-known breeding- ground of the Roseate Tern
was the Fame Islands, but on the west coast Foulney and
Walney Islands were both resorts for the species, as well as
some of the Scilly Islands. The late Mr. Henry Seebohm,
however, believed that the species was practically extinct in
the British Islands, but under the protective measures now
adopted at the Fames and elsewhere, the species has resumed
its nesting in some of its old haunts.

I have, moreover, received the following interesting note from
Mr. J. T. Proud, of Bishop Auckland : — " I am glad to say that
I know of a nice little colony of Roseate Terns breeding with
the Common and Arctic Terns, in Wales. I have this year
(1896) spent considerable time in making sure of the correct
identification of the eggs. I found by marking the nests and
watching the birds on to them, that the eggs {never more than
two in number^ were quite different from those of the Arctic
and Common Terns, and having once made sure of the
difference, there was no mistaking them." "^

Mr. R. J. Ussher says that, in Ireland, the species formerly
bred on islands off the coasts of Down, Dublin, and Wexford.

* Mr Proud very kindly sent up the eggs and the bird, which I handed
over to Mr. Saunders, and he exhibited them at the meeting of the B. O.
Club on the 20th of January, 1897.

2 6 Allen's naturalist's libr.\ry.

Range Outside the British Islands. — The Roseate Tern is a
maritime species, and is found on most of the coasts of the
temperate and tropical portions of the Old and New Worlds.
In many of its southern habitats it is only known as a winter
visitor, but it also breeds in several of its tropical resorts,
such, for instance, being Ceylon, the Andaman Islands, New
Caledonia, and the West Indies. It does not range north
of 57° N. lat, being, as Mr. Saunders remarks, "merely
a straggler to the coasts of the North Sea. It has several
colonies on the west side of France, and a few examples have
been obtained in the Mediterranean ; while we trace it to the
Azores and across the Atlantic — by way of the Bermudas — to
America. There it is found breeding along the east coast
from New England to Honduras, and throughout the West
Indies, though it has not yet been obtained on the Pacific
sea-board." In winter it visits South Africa, the Indian and
Australian oceans, and breeds in Northern Australia. Speci-
mens from southern localities are often found in full breeding
plumage, and we may expect that more nesting-places of the
species will yet be discovered.

Habits. — The Roseate Tern is so called on account of the
beautiful rosy blush which is seen over the white under parts,
a feature which, unfortunately, disappears gradually in preserved
specimens, though traces may still be seen in skins which have
been in cabinets for years. There is little to say about its
habits, which are like those of other Terns, except that it is
more exclusively a maritime species than the Arctic or Common
Terns. Its note is said to be a somewhat harsh " crake."

Nest. — As with other Terns, there is generally no real nest, a
slight hollow in the sand being made for the reception of the
eggs, though occasionally a few bits of dried grass form the
scanty lining.

Eggs. — Mr. Proud tells me that the eggs are invariably two in
number. Seebohm says two or three are found, and Mr.
Howard Saunders records instances of four being met with,
probably the produce of two females. In general colour the
eggs of the Roseate Tern resemble those of the Common Tern,
but they are somewhat more elongated, and the markings
are smaller and more scattered, the grey underlying markings

SANDWICH TERN.

^7

being often very distinct. In one specimen in the British
Museum the ground-colour is purplish-buff with brown spots.
Axis, I -55-1 -85 inch; diam. 1*05-1 -2.

IV. THE SANDWICH TERN. STERNA CANTIACA.

Sterna cantiaca^ Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 606 (1788); Macgill.
Brit. B. V. p. 630 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 301,
pi. 586 (1877); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 183 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 540 (1884); See-
bohm. Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 272 (1885); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 627 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix.
(1894) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 75 (1896.)

Adult Male. — General colour above dark pearly-grey, the
scapulars tipped with white; wing-coverts like the back, with
the bend of the wing white ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills darker pearly-grey, especially the primaries, which are
frosted externally with dark grey ; the four outer primaries with
white shaft, accompanied by a blackish band along its inner
aspect to the end of the feathers, the rest of the inner webs
white ; inner primaries and secondaries white, with more or
less grey on the outer webs ; upper tail-coverts and tail white ;
crown of head and nape blue-black, the crest-feathers pointed ;
the lower half of the lores, sides of face, sides of neck and a
collar round the hind neck, as well as the under surface of the
body with the under wing-coverts and axillaries, pure white.
Total length, i6"5 inches; culmen, 2-3; wing, ii-8; tail, 6-5;
tarsus, I "I.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 16-5
inches ; wing, i2'o.

Adult in Winter. — Differs from the summer plumage in
wanting the black head, the forehead being white, with a black
spot in front of the eye ; the crown white, with a few narrow
black streaks, and the nape more thickly streaked with black.

Young. — Mottled all over with sub-marginal or sub-terminal
bars of black ; along the lesser wing-coverts a band of ashy-
grey ; tail-feathers dusky at tips and barred or spotted with
black ; bill horn-coloured, yellowish at the base of the under
mandible.

28 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Nestling. — Clothed in greyish down with a sandy-buff tinge,
the head somewhat white, and all the upper parts mottled with
dusky blackish, very indistinctly; below white; bill yellowish ;
feet greyish-brown, the webs paler.

Characters. — The Sandwich Tern is the largest of our indi-
genous Terns, the wings exceeding twelve inches in length.
The feet are black, and the bill is black with a yellow tip.
The feathers of the nape are pointed and form an elongated
crest.

Range in the British Islands. — This species is a summer visitor
to Great Britain, and still breeds regularly on the Fame Islands
as well as in a few other localities in England and Scotland,
on both the east and west coasts. In several places, such as
the Scilly Islands, where the species was formerly known to
breed, it is no longer seen during the nesting season. Mr.
Ussher says that in Ireland it is "only known to breed at
the present day on one small lake near Ballina, in Mayo, where
it is strictly preserved. It has disappeared from its former
breeding place on the Rockabill, Co. Dublin."

Range outside the British Islands. — The following extract from
j\Ir. Saunders' recent volume on the Laridce gives the range
of the Sandwich Tern with a preciseness which leaves me
nothing to improve upon : — " Atlantic and North Sea coasts
from the Orkneys southwards to the Mediteranean Black Sea,
and Caspian (breeding) ; in winter, along the west coast of
Africa to the Cape of Good Hope and up to Natal, down the
Red Sea, and across Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf,
Mekran coast, and Karachi. East side of America from
southern New England to British Honduras, not breeding to
the northward of Florida ; only found on the Pacific side on
the coast of Guatemala and vicinity, where the continent is
very narrow."

Habits. — Seehohm thus describes a visit to the Fame Islands
in 1870, when the Sandwich Terns were nesting in some num-
bers : — "On a gently sloping sand-bank leading up to the
centre of the island, Avhich was merely a mass of shelving rock
perhaps thirty feet across, there was a large colony of the
Sandwich Tern. In the thick of them there must have been

SMALLER SOOTY TERN. 29

on an average a nest per square yard. The birds, which were not
then sitting (it was the 3rd of June), soon discovered that their
colony was being invaded, and flew in hundreds over us for a
short time." Besides taking the eggs of other species, such as Eider
Ducks, Gulls, &c., he states that he saw more than two hundred
eggs of the Sandwich Tern. " In the year when I found them
in still greater abundance, they had chosen the same locality
for their colony ; but they were so much molested that they
soon deserted the place and moved their quarters to the grass-
covered island adjoining, where their eggs where in such pro-
fusion that we inadvertently trod on many of them. In this
locality many of the birds had arranged the scattered bits of
dead weed which were lying about into the semblance of a
nest. In addition to the Krr-ee, which seems, in a more or less
modified form, to be common to all the Terns, the Sandwich
Tern has a note which may be represented by the syllables
skerr-1'ek. The nesting season in the Fames begins about the
middle of May."

Nest. — This is described by Seebohrn as merely a slight
hollow in the bare sand, in diameter and depth of the dimen-
sions of a cheese-plate, and he says that the nests and eggs
were very difficult to distinguish from the sand and fine gravel
by which they were surrounded. The nests are, however,
sometimes more substantial structures of bents.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, rarely the latter. They are
very handsome and vary to any extent. The ground-colour is
generally clay- coloured or ochreous-buff, deeper or lighter in
shade, the spots and markings being black or dark brown,
often with the purplish-grey underlying spots very distinct and
quite as plain as the overlying spots and blotches. In many
examples the spots and scribblings of black are distributed over
the whole egg, while others are remarkable for their bold
confluent blotches. Axis, 2-0-2-25 inches ; diam., I'SS-i'S-

V. THE SMALLER SOOTY TERN. STERNA AN.-ESTHETA.

Sterna ancEsthefa, Scop. Del. Flor. et. Faun. Insubr. i. p. 92,
no. 72 (1786); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 565,
note (1884); id. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. loi (1895.)

30 AIJ.EN S naturalist's LinRARY.

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-brown, shaded with
ashy-grey ; the mantle conspicuously greyer than the back ;
wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and
quills black, the primaries with brown shafts and a long " wedge "
of white on the inner web, gradually diminishing in size on the
inner primaries; upper tail-coverts and tail-feathers brown, shaded
witli ashy-grey ; the outermost tail-feather white, the next white
for two-thirds of its length and brown for the terminal third ;
the next feather white for nearly half its length and brown for
the terminal half; the white on the central feathers becoming
gradually reduced in size and confined to the inner web; crown
of head and nape black, with a white frontal band extending
backwards in a broad streak over the eye ; a black streak across
the lores from the base of the bill to the eye ; cheeks, ear-
coverts, and entire under surface of body white, including the
under wing-coverts and axillaries ; " bill, tarsi, and feet black,
the inner webs of the latter considerably excised " {Sau?iders).
Total length, 15 inches; culmen, i"55; wing, iq-q; tail, 6'6;
tarsus, o'9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 15 inches ;
wings, 10-4.

Adult in Winter Plumag-e. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but with the lores and crown mottled with white for a short
time. [Sannders.)

Young-.— Sooty-brown above, the head mottled obscurely with
dull rufous, with which colour the feathers of the upper surface
are edged ; these rufous margins gradually fading to white and
ultimately becoming abraded ; under surface of body light
dove-grey, whiter on the face and throat ; under wing-
coverts white with a grey shade.

Young in First Winter Plumage. — Rather more ashy than the
adults, and with conspicuous white or ashy- white margins to
the feathers of the back ; the mantle hoary-whitish ; forehead
and crown white, the hinder crown broadly streaked with
black ; the nape and hind neck entirely black ; wing-coverts
brown, the marginal ones black, forming a band. Mr.
Saunders says that full plumage is not attained till the bird is
at least two years old.

SIMALLER SOOTY TERN. 31

Characters. — This species is easily recognised from all the
other British Terns, except S.fieliginosa, by its white forehead
and black streak across the lores. The upper surface is sooty-
black, including the rump, and the manile is lighter, umber-
brown or ashy-grey, contrasting with the black head. So
different in style of plumage are the Sooty Terns that they have
been placed by many authors in a separate genus — Haliplana —
and the uniform sooty colour of the young bird, only relieved
by white or rufous tips to the feathers, is quite peculiar among
the true Terns. Notwithstanding these differences, however,
Mr. Saunders has come to the conclusion that the Sooty Terns
cannot be separated structurally and generically from Sterna.

Ra,nge in Great Britain. — The present species has occurred in
England only on one occasion, when a specimen was captured
m September, 1S75, on one of the lightships at the mouth of
the Thames. The evidence of the occurrence of this example,
which is now in the collection of Mr. Edward Bidvvell, appears
to be fairly conclusive, as is admitted by Mr. Saunders, who has
himself investigated the circumstances.

Rang-e Outside the British Islands. — The following is the distribu-
tion allotted to the species by Mr. Saunders in the "Catalogue
of Birds": — "Inter-tropical and juxta-tropical seas^Gulf of
Mexico and West Indies ; West Africa, Lower Red Sea, East
Africa, Madagascar, and Mascarene Islands and Indian Ocean
generally ; Moluccas, China Sea up to Japan, Pelew Islands,
New Guinea, Northern Australia, the Fiji, Tonga, EUice, and
Phoenix groups. In the Low Islands and the Sandwich Islands
the representative species appears to be S. lunataP

Habits. — These are doubtle-ss similar to those of the Sooty
Tern in many respects, but Gilbert remarks that on Hout-
mann's Abrolhos in Western Australia, he found it breeding,
and that the species differed from its allies, "inasmuch as,
instead of being gregarious, each pair remains solitary, and its
single egg is deposited in the fissure of a rock close to the
v/ater's edge without any nest or flooring."

Nest. — None, the single egg being deposited in the holes of
the loose friable coral sandstone, according to Macgillivi-ay, who
met with the species on the islands of Torres Straits.

32 ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Eggs, — Ground-colour varying from whitish stone-colour to
clay-brown, the markings being reddish-brown or black, and
varying in character from small spots, streaks, and lines or
scratches, to larger spots or small blotches, never confluent,
and equally distributed over the surface of the egg ; the under-
lying spots of purplish-grey distinctly indicated, but seldom
equalling the overlying markings in prominence. Axis, 175-
195 inch; diam. i-25-i'35.

VL THE SOOTY TERN. STERNA FULIGINOSA.

Sterna fuliginosa, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 605 (1788); Dresser,
B. Eur. viii. p. 307, pi. 587 (1877) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B.
p. 183 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 562
(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 292 (1885);
Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 637 (1889); id. Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. XXV. p. 106 (1896).

Adult Male. — Similar to .S' anastheta, but more uniformly
sooty-black above, the light mantle not being emphasized, and
thus the black crown is scarcely darker than the remainder of
the upper surface ; the quills blackish, with a dark ashy
" wedge " on the inner web of the primaries, not white as in
S. a?icest/ieta ; " bill and feet black, with a slightly reddish tinge "
{Saunders). Total length, 14-5 inches; culmen, i'65; wing,
ii'o; tail, 58; tarsus, 0-85.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 155 inches;
wing, 1 1 -6,

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Only distinguishable fiom the
summer plumage by having white flecks on the lores and
crown {Saunders).

Nestling. — Mottled above with dusky-blackish and sandy-
buff, intermixed with a good deal of white on the back and
rump ; under surface of body whitish, the cheeks and sides of
the face like the back. As the young bird increases in size,
the down is replaced by blackish feathers which have sandy-
rufous or white tips, those on the scapular-plumes being con-
spicuously white. The under surface of the body is white,
but the sides of the face are like the crown and are similarly
mottled.

SOOTY TERN. 3;^

Voung- Birds. — The fully-grown young in its first plumage is
sooty- brown above and below, the under surface being, perhaps,
a trifle paler, and the lower abdomen white ; the feathers of
the back, wing-coverts, secondaries, and tail-feathers tipped with
a bar of sandy-rufous, which soon bleaches to white.

Characters. — As in the preceding species, the dark colour of
the upper parts is the chief characteristic. It is a larger bird
than S. ancBstheta, with a longer wing; and it is further dis-
tinguished from that species by having the web between the
middle and inner toe nearly full, and far less excised than in
S. a]i(V,st]ieta.

Range in Great Britain. — Only three occurrences of the present
species in England appear to be beyond dispute, as Mr.
Saunders says that most of the examples identified as Sooty
Terns have turned out to be Black Terns. One specimen w^as
procured at Tutbury, near Burton-on-Trent, in October, 1852 ;
another near Wallingford, in Berkshire, on the 21st of June,
1869; and another near Bath on the 4th of October, 1885.

R9.nge outside the British Islands. — "Tropical and juxta-tropical
seas, wherever suitable islands and reefs exist ; occasionally
wandering to Maine in North America and to Europe. Almost
unknown on the South American side of the Pacific ; other-
wise very generally distributed '' {^H. Saunders).

Habits. — The enormous quantities of this Tern which frequent
certain isolated breeding-places of sea-birds, such, for instance,
as the volcanic island of Ascension, have often been v,'ritten
about, and a description of " Wide-awake Fair," as the assem-
blage of Terns is called on that island, has more than once been
published. Two hundred dozen of eggs have been collected
on Ascension in a single morning. Macgillivray, too, speaks
of the enormous numbers which he found breeding on Raine's
Islet in Torres Straits. He writes : — " During the month of
June, 1844, about 1,500 dozen of eggs were procured by the
party on the island. About the 20th of June nearly one-half
of the young birds (hatched twenty-five or thirty days previ-
ously) were able to fly, and many were quite strong on the
wing. Great numbers of young birds unable to fly were killed
for the pot ; in one mess of twenty-two men the average
^5 P

34

ALLENS NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

number consumed daily in June was fifty ; and supposing the
convicts (twenty in number) to have consumed as many, 3,000
young birds must have been killed in one month ; yet I could
observe no sensible diminution in the number of young, a
circumstance which will give the reader some idea of the vast
number of birds of this species congregated on a mere vegetated
sand-bank like Raine's Islet."

A similar gathering of these Terns during the nesting-season
has been described and figured by the Hon. Walter Rothschild
in his " Avifauna of Laysan."

Nest, — None, the egg being deposited in the sand or among
the fissures of the volcanic debris of an island such as
Ascension.

Egg-. — One only. Compared with the eggs of S. afiastheta^
the markings, though very similar in character, are, as a rule,
bolder, and the ground-colour approaches in some specimens
to a purplish-buff. Axis, i'95-2-i5 inches; diam., i'35-i'55-

VIL THE LITTLE TERN. STERNA MINUTA.

Sterna minufa, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 228 (1766) ; Macgill.
Brit. B. V. p. 652 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 279,
pi. 582 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 181 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 558 (1884); Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 289 (1885) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 635 (18S9); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 116 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, the wing-
coverts like the back ; lower rump and upper tail-coverts
white ; bastard-wing pearly-grey, but the primary-coverts
blackish like the primaries, the first three of which are blackish
along the outer web and also along the inner side of the shaft
for the whole length of the quill, broadening on the second
and third primary, all three of them having the rest of the
inner web white ; remainder of the primaries pearly-grey, a
little darker than the back, and with white margins to the inner-
most; secondaries mostly white, the outer web and the shaft
dusky-grey ; the innermost secondaries pearly-grey like the

LITTLE TERN. 35

back ; tail-feathers white ; forehead and feathers above the eye
white ; crown of head and nape black, as also a line through
the eye and the lores ; cheeks, sides of face, and under sur-
face of body pure silky white ; " bill gamboge -yellow, tipped
with black ; tarsi and feet orange-yellow " (^H. Saimdei-s).
Total length, 9*5 inches; culmen, 1*3; wing, 6'8 ; tail, 3*4;
tarsus, o'6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but with the outer tail-
feathers scarcely so developed. Total length, 9-0 inches ;
wing, 6-8.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but with more white on the forehead, and with the outer
primaries rather darker towards their ends.

Young Birds. — These are easily distinguished by the black
mottling on the feathers of the upper surface, which takes the
form of circular bars or arrow-headed sub-terminal bars, all the
feathers being tinged or edged with sandy-buff; the rump
light pearly-grey, with a shade of the latter colour over the
upper tail-coverts and tail-feathers; wing-coverts mottled like
the back, with a dark-grey band along the marginal lesser wing-
coverts ; forehead sullied white, the crown sandy-buff streaked
with black, the hinder crown and nape entirely blackish ; a loral
streak of dusky black; bill blackish, with a slight reddish tinge.

The sandy colour of the upper surface in the young bird
quickly disappears, but the black bars are maintained till the
autumn moult.

Nestling. — Light sandy-buff, spotted and streaked with black;
under surface whitish, the throat sandy-buff, with the region of
the gape dusky.

Range in Great Britain.— The Little Tern is found nesting in
scattered colonies on most of the coasts of the British Islands,
though many localities in the north of England and in Scotland,
where the species formerly bred, know it no more. It arrives
from the south early in May, and leaves in September or in
the first weeks of October. Mr. Ussher says that in Ireland it
breeds on sea-beaches in Donegal, Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford,
Galway, and Mayo, but in much smaller numbers than the
Common or Arctic Terns.

D 2

^6 Allen's naturalist's library.

Range outside the British Islands. — The species extends to about
60° N. lat. in Europe, is scarce on the northern shores of the Baltic,
and, as Mr. Howard Saunders says, is " rare on the southern
shore of that sea, following the course of the large rivers for
so great a distance — nesting on their islands and sand-banks —
that it may be said to extend across the Continent to the
Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas, while it also fre-
quenis the Atlantic coast." Eastward it ranges to Transcaspia,
Turkestan, and Northern India, breeding in all these localities.
In winter it ranges along the coast of West Africa to the Cape
of Good Hope, and is found at the same season along the
Burmese coasts as far south as the island of Java. The place
of the Little Tern is taken by Sterna saundersi in the Indian
Ocean, the Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and along the coast of
East Africa to Natal and the Mascarene Islands.

Habits. — The Little Tern is one of a group of small species,
distributed over the greater part of the Old World, as well as
temperate and tropical North America. From their small size
and different appearance to the ordinary Terns they have often
been separated from the latter as a distinct genus Siertiula^
but Mr. Saunders finds no characters for their generic separa-
tion from the members of the genus Sterna.

Nevertheless, any one who has seen the birds on the shore,
recognises at once a certain difference in the appearance and
ways of the Little Tern from those of its larger and more
conspicuous colleagues. This may be due, however, rather
to the smaller size of ^. miinita^ and its quicker motions, than
to any real difference in the habits of this small Tern,
as, after all, the ways of the species of the genus Sterna
are very much alike. Naturally the small size of the present
bird renders it less conspicuous than the Common Tern, and
whereas the colonies of the latter bird can generally be detected
from some distance, the Little Terns are only discovered by
a sudden invasion of their nesting-places. The pairs keep
together, and may generally be seen sitting side by side, though
they do not permit of a near approach, but fly off before the
intruder comes within gun-shot. Only when they have young,
however, are they more venturesome, and fly much nearer
to the enemy. Such, at least, is my experience, though other

NODDY TERN. 37

observers have found the bird quite bold, so much so that it
has been known to settle down on its nest within sight of the
intruder.

Nest. — Mr. Robert Read tells me that in the south-east of
England he has never found any attempt at a nest, the eggs
being laid on the bare sand. Thus, too, I have found them
myself; but on the east coast of Scotland, Mr. Read says that
he has found some very pretty nests, consisting of a cup-
shaped hollow scooped out of the sand, and surrounded by a
ring of broken cockle-shells and other shells of various colours.

Egg-s. — Generally two, but sometimes three in number, vary-
ing to a remarkable extent in tint of ground-colour, from
greyish stone-colour to buff or clay-brown of different shades.
The markings are generally distributed over the whole surface
of the egg, and are, as a rule, scattered spots of deep reddish-
brown or black, occasionally confluent and forming a blotch,
but it is very seldom that large blotches are seen. The under-
lying grey spots are always more or less in evidence. Axis,
I "25-1 '4 inch; diam. o'g-i'o.

THE NODDY TERNS. GENUS ANGUS.

Anoics, Steph. in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. part i. p. 139 (1826).

Type A. stolidus (L.).

The Noddies are remarkable for their sombre plumage.
The tail is graduated, and the outer pair of tail-feathers are
shorter than the next pair, the fourth pair from the outside
being the longest. The toes are short, and the middle toe
and claw do not equal the culmen in length. The bill is
strong and decurved at the tip, and the distance from the
angle of the genys to the tip is less than the distance from
this angle to the gape. (Cf. Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv.
p. 5-)

I. THE NODDY TERN. ANOUS STOLIDUS.

Sterna sfolida, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 227 (1766); Seebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 294 (1885).
Megalopteriis stolidus, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 672 (1852).

38 Allen's naturalist's library.

Anous stolidus, B. O. U. List, Brit. B. p. 186 (18S3) ; Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 567 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.
p. 639 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894) ;
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 136 (1896).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above dark
chocolate-brown, rather darker on the rump and upper tail-
coverts ; wing-coverts like the back ; primary-coverts and quills
blackish, the inner secondaries chocolate-brown like the back ;
tail-feathers blackish ; forehead white, extending in a narrow
line above the eye ; rest of the crown pearly-grey, slightly
darker on the nape and hind neck ; lores and feathers round
the eye leaden-black ; eyelid white ; remainder of sides of face
and under surface of body chocolate-brown, with a shade of
grey perceptible on the sides of the face and throat, as well as
on the under wing-coverts ; " bill blackish ; tarsi and feet
reddish-brown, fully webbed, the webs ochraceous" (H.
Saunders). Total length, 14*5 inches; culmen, 1*2; wing,
ii'i; tail, 5*6; tarsus, i"o5.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly smaller, with
a weaker bill, and, as a rule, somewhat browner on the
shoulders and wiih less lead-colour on the throat. Total
length, 14-5 inches ; wing, 10-5.

Young. — Browner than the adults and rather paler ; forehead
and crown greyish-brown, with a narrow white superciliary line,
conspicuous by contrast against the blackish lores. A fledge-
ling from Ascension Island is umber-brown above and below,
with the whitish streak above the lores very marked and
continuous round the base of the bill, and with a slight greyish
tint on the forehead. A downy nestling about five days old,
from British Honduras, has the forehead and crown dull white,
the lores blackish ; the upper surface mouse-brown ; the nape
and the throat darkest, with the lower parts paler ; another,
only just hatched is nearly uniform sooty-brown {Saunders).

Range in Great Britain.— The only examples of the Noddy
recorded from the British Islands, or, for that matter, from any
part of Europe, are two specimens obtained in Ireland, off the
coast of Wexford, between the Tuskar Lighthouse and the Bay

NODDY TERN 39

of Dublin, about the year 1830. One of them is still preserved
in the Dublin Museum.

Range outside the Britisli Islands. — The following summary of
the distribution of the Noddy is given by Mr. Saunders in the
British Museum " Catalogue of Birds " : — " Tropical and
juxta-tropical America, chiefly on the Atlantic side, but also
on the Pacific, in Mexico and the central region ; Atlantic
down to Tristan da Cunha (breeding) ; inter-tropical African
and Asian seas, up to Yeddo ; Australasia down to about 35°
S. ; islands of the Pacific up to Laysan, &c., and as far as Sala
y Gomez, 105° W.; also Chatham Island, Galapagos (fde
Ridgway), but not on the coasts of Peru or Chile. Breedmg,
as a rule, where found."

Habits. — The Noddies nest in enormous numbers in some of
the islands of the Southern Ocean, generally in the vicinity of
the Sooty Tern (S. fidiginosa) with which the Noddy is always
on good terms. The birds are generally so tame as to be with
difficulty removed from their nests, but Mr. Palmer says that
he has known them boldly drive away Albatroses. Gilbert gives
a good account of the nesting of the Noddy on Houtman's
Abrolhos off Western Australia, and he declares that the
increase in the number of the Terns would be overwhelming
but for the check which nature has provided against it in the
shape_ of a lizard, which is extremely abundant about their
breeding-places, finding an easy prey in the Noddy and
Sooty Terns. "I am satisfied," he writes, "from constant
observation, that, on an average, not more than one out of
every twenty birds hatched ever reaches maturity or lives long
enough to take wing ; besides this, great numbers of the old
birds are constantly killed. These lizards do not eat the whole
bird, but merely extract the brains and vertebral marrow ; the
remainder, however, is soon cleared off by the Dermestes
lardarius, a beetle which is here in amazing numbers, and gave
me a great deal of uneasiness and constant trouble to preserve
my collection from its repeated attacks." The food of the
Noddy is said by Gilbert "to consist of small fish, small
mollusca, medusa, cuttle-fish, &c."

Nest.— -Made of sea-weed, according to Gilbert ; about six
inches in diameter, and varying in height from four to eight

40 Allen's naturalists library.

inches, but without anything like regularity of form ; the top is
nearly flat, there being but a very slight hollow to prevent the
egg rolling off. The nests are so completely plastered with
the excrement of the birds, that at first sight it appears tu be
almost the only material ; they are either placed on the ground,
in a clear open space, or on the tops of the thick scrub, over
those of S. /h'/iginosa. These two species, the Noddy and
the Sooty Tern, incubate together in the utmost harmony,
the bushes to an immense extent wearing a mottled appearance
from the great mass of birds of both species perched on the
top, the male Sooty Tern sitting quite close to the nest of the
Noddy, whilst its mate is beneath, performing her arduous
duties of incubation. (Cf. Gould's Handb. B. Austr. ii. p. 413).
Sometimes no nest is made and the egg is placed in a crevice
of rock or coral-reef.

Eggs. — One only, according to the observations of all recent
observers. Audubon gives the number as three. They
are similar to those of the Sooty Tern, and of the same
character, but they are always much paler and never exceed a
light stone-colour, the spotting being much more sparsely
distributed and smaller ; the type with scratches or zig-zag
markings appears to be absent. On the other hand, there are
one or two eggs in the British Museum which have distinct
blotches, confluent at the larger end, and in one example, the
large end of the egg is taken up by an immense patch of red-
dish-brown. Axis, 2 "05-2 "1 5 inches; diam. 1*4-1 -5 5.

Mr. Saunders points out that the yolk of the Noddy's
egg is yellow, while that of the Sooty Tern is deep orange-
red. The Hon. Walter Rothschild also calls attention to the
fact that the inside of the Noddy's egg is darker and more
green when held up to the light.

THE GULLS. SUB-FAMILY LARIN^.

In the Gulls, the bill is w^hat is called " epignathous,"
the upper mandible being longer and bent down over the
tip of the lower one ; tail usually square, seldom forked,
exceptionally cuneate. (Cf. Saunders, Cat. J3. Brit. Mus. xxv,
p. 4 (1895).)

ii !i r, ;)i \

m !i 11

SABINE'S GULL. 41

THE FORK-TAILED GULLS. GENUS XEMA.

Xeina^ Leach in J. Ross's Voy. Baffin's Bay, App. ii. p. 57

(1819).

Type X. sabi/iii (J. Sabine).

In this genus the tail is considerably forked, and the wings
long, the hind-toe being free and very small.

Only two species of Fork -tailed Gull are known, the
Arctic X. sabi7iii, and X. furcata of the Galapagos Islands,
which seems to wander down the Pacific coast of South
America, as it has been found at Paracas Bay, in Peru.

I, SACINE's gull. XEMA SABINIL

Larus sahinii^ J. Sabine, Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 520, pi. 29

(1818); Seebohm, Hist Brit. B. iii. p. 298 (18S5);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891).
Gavia sabmii, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 607 (1852.)
Xema sabi?ni, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 337, pi. 593(1874);

B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 193 (1883); Saunders ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. in. p. 573 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 641 (1889) ; id. Cat. B. Mus. xxv. p. 162 (1896).

{Plafe XCVIII.)

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above light
ashy-grey, including the wing-coverts and inner secondaries,
the latter as well as the greater wing- coverts being tipped with
white, the latter very broadly, so that nearly the terminal half
of the external greater wing-coverts is white ; exterior lesser
coverts, bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and primaries black,
the latter tipped with white, and having the inner half of the
inner web longitudinally white, but this not reaching to the end
of the quill on the first five primaries ; the black much
diminished on the next two primaries, the inner primaries and
the secondaries being white ; the innermost secondaries light
ashy-grey, white at their ends ; lower rump, upper tail-coverts,
and tail white, the latter conspicuously forked ; head, sides of
face, and throat dark slaty-grey ; the hind-neck, sides of neck,
and under surface of body, from the lower throat downwards^

42 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

pure white; the slaty-grey head being separated from the white
neck and ciiest by a band of black ; bill black to the angle,
chrome-yellow anteriorly ; inside of mouth vermilion ; iris dark
brown, a narrow vermilion ring round the eye, beneath which
is a white speck ; tarsi and toes brown to blackish. Total
length, i3"3, culmen, 1*15; wing, ii'4; tail, 4*0; tarsus, i"6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 12-5 inches ;
wing, ii'o.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — According to Mr. Saunders, the
winter plumage is similar to the breeding dress, excepting as
regards the head, which is white, with grey streaks, which
coalesce on the nape and hind-neck, producing a greyish-black
appearance. The quills become worn and faded in colour,
and their tips abruptly broken off, as if cut artificially ; the bill
is duller in colour and the tips brown. By the beginning of
April the new primaries, with broad white tips, are fully de-
veloped, and the head is plentifully besprinkled with slaty-grey.

Young.— Ashy-brown above, mottled all over with ashy-buff
edges to the feathers, emphasized by a sub-terminal bar of
black; the head rather lighter ashy, with obscure fulvescent
margins ; lores and base of forehead, as well as a streak behind
the eye, white, as also the fore part of the cheeks; the feathers
below the eye and the ear-coverts slaty-grey ; under surface of
body white, with a large patch of ashy-brown on each side of
the upper breast, the feathers being margined with ashy-buff;
tail with a conspicuous black band at the end.

Range in Great Britain. — Young specimens of Sabine's Gull
have been frequently obtained off our coast, chiefly in autumn
and winter, between the months of August and December.
Two adults in summer plumage have been recorded, one from
Bridlington, in Yorkshire, and another from the Island of Mull.

Range outside the Biitisli Islands. — The present species is
circumpolar in distribution, and breeds throughout Arctic
America from Baffin Bay to Alaska, whence to the eastward
it has been found nesting on the Taimyr peninsula, by Dr. Von
Middendorff. In winter it visits the shores of Northern
Europe as a straggler, but in the New World it goes as far
south as the Bermudas and Southern Texas on the Atlantic
side, and on the Pacific side the species has been found by

SABINE S GULL. 43

Commander Macfarlane in swarms as far south as Callao Bay,
in Peru. It has not yet been recorded from Novaya Zemlya
or Franz-Josef Land, and, according to Mr. Howard Saunders,
it is very rare or local in Spitsbergen, while it is believed to be
merely a visitor to Jan Mayen.

Habits. — Mr. E. W. Nelson has given an interesting account
of this Gull as observed by him in Alaska. He writes : — " My
acquaintance with this bird began on my first excursion near
Saint Michael's, on June 26, 1877. We were caught by a head-
tide at the mouth of the ' canal,' some fifteen miles from the
fort and tied up to the bank to await the change. We stopped
soon after midnight, and taking my gun I strolled off across
the marshes in the soft twilight. For some time only the
hoarse cries of distant Loons, or the rolling note of a Crane
broke the silence. The whole scene was desolate in the
extreme ; not a living thing could be seen, and the bleaching
fragments of drift-wood scattered among the numberless ponds
were all that the wide extent of level marsh presented. About
1.30 a.m. the sky became brighter, and the rich tones of the
Swans, mellowed by the distance to a harmonious cadence,
came from the larger lakes, while various other inhabitants of
the marsh from time to time added their voices to the chorus.
In a few minutes a long straggling train of small Gulls was
seen passing over the ponds in silent procession. Approaching
them, they were found to be busily engaged in feeding on the
small fishes and various small larvae found in these pools. Their
motions and appearance were much like those of Bonaparte's
Gull, when seen at distance, but they rarely plunged into the
water like the latter, as the Xemas have the habit of hovering
gracefully close over the water to pick up a morsel, or of
alighting for an instant in the water and rising again on the
wing so lightly that scarcely a ripple is made on the surface.
Ten or a dozen beautiful specimens were shot without difficulty
as the birds flew about. Their food throughout the season
consists of sticklebacks at times, but mainly of such small larv^
and crustaceans as occur in brackish ponds. As August draws
to a close, young and old forsake the marshes to a great extent,
and for the rest of the season are found scattered along the
coast, feeding at the water-line on the beaches.

44 ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

" On a number of occasions I have mistaken the young of the
year of these Gulls for Plover or other Waders as they sought
their food along rocky beaches. In such cases they ran out
with each retiring wave and back before the incoming one,
with all the agility of a Wader.

" Sabine's Gull has a single harsh, grating, but not loud note,
very similar to the grating cry of the Arctic Tern, but somewhat
harsher and shorter. When wounded and pursued or captured,
it utters the same note in a higher and louder key, with such a
grating file-like intensity that one feels like stopping one's ears.
It has the same peculiar clicking interruptions which are so
characteristic of the cry of a small bat held in the hand. A low,
chattering modification of this is heard at times as the birds
gather about the border of a favourite pool, or float gracefully
in company over the surface of some grassy-bordered pond.
The same note in a higher key serves as a note of alarm and
curiosity as they fly off overhead when disturbed. When one
of these Gulls is brought down, the others of its kind hover
over it, but show less devotion than is usually exhibited by the
Terns."

Nest. — The nests are described by Mr. Nelson as having been
found by him on an island near St. Michael's. " The island,"
he says, " was very low, and the driest spots were but little
above the water. Built on the driest places were twenty-seven
nests, containing from one to two eggs each, and as many others
just ready for occupancy. Four or five nests were frequently
placed within two or three feet of each other. In about one
half of the cases the eggs were laid upon the (ew grass blades
the spot afforded, with no alteration save a slight depression
made by the bird's body. In the majority of the other nests
a few grass blades and stems had been arranged circularly
about the eggs, and in the remainder only enough material had
been added to afford the merest apology for a nest.

Eggs. — Two in number, of a very dark olive-brown with
reddish- brown spots, nowhere very distinct, the underlying grey
markings being still more obscure. In some examples the spots
are congregated near the large end of the egg, but, as a rule,
they are generally distributed over the whole surflice. Axis,
i"6-i"8inch; diam. i'25--i'35.

WEDGE-TAILED GULL. 45

THE WEDGE-TAILED GULLS. GENUS RHODOSTETIHA.
Rhodostethia^ Bp. Comp. List B. Eur. and N. Amer. p. 62

(.838).

Type R. rosea (Macgill.).

The present genus, which contains only a single species, has
the tail wedge-shaped, the two middle feathers more than half
an inch longer than the next pair, and nearly two inches longer
than the outermost tail-feather.

1. THE WEDGE-TAILED GULL. RHODOSTETHIA ROSEA.

Lanis roseuSy Macgill. Mem. Wern. Soc. v. no. xiii. p. 249

(1824).
Rhodostethia rossi^ Richardson; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 618

(1852).

Rhodostethia rosea, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 343, pi. 594
(1877); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 192 (1883) ; Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 572 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.
p. 643 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. parts xvii. xxiii.
(1893); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 167 (1896).

Lams rossii, Scebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 305 (1885).

Adult Male in Breeding- Plumage. — General colour above light
pearly-grey ; quills pearly-grey, with a blackish outer web to
the first primary ; secondaries white at the ends ; rump, upper
tail-coverts, and wedge-shaped tail white ; head and neck all
round white, with a black collar round the latter ; under
parts white, the under wing-coverts and quill-linings grey ;
axillaries white ; bill black ; a vermilion ring round the eye ;
tarsi, toes, and their webs bright red,

The whole of the white parts in this species are suffused
with a beautiful blush of rose-colour, whence the bird is often
popularly known as " Ross's Rosy Gull."

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Wants the black collar round the
neck, and, according to Mr. Saunders, the rosy colour is not so
prominent at this season of the year.

46 Allen's naturalist's library.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult and wanting
the black collar. The head, neck, and under surface of the
body white, with a greyish shade on the crown and a little black
behind the eye ; tail wTdge-shaped and having a black band at
the end of all the feathers except the outer ones ; feathers of
the rump and upper tail-coverts tipped with black ; wing-coverts
and innermost secondaries black, with indistinct white tips,
forming a band down the wing ; bastard-wTng and primary-
coverts black ; primaries black along the outer web and on the
inner side of the shaft, the rest of the inner weh white, which
cuts across the end of the inner primaries and forms a sub-
terminal bar ; the innermost primaries white, with a black tip ;
the secondaries white ; tarsi and toes brown.

Range in Great Britain. — One specimen of the Wedge-tail Gull
has been recorded from England, having been said to have been
shot near Tadcaster, in December, 1846, or February, 1847.
This example, formerly in Sir W. Milner's collection, is now in
the Leeds Museum. Some doubt has been thrown on the
authenticity of the occurrence, as the specimen appears, in the
opinion of several naturalists, to have been mounted from a
skin and not from a freshly killed bird. As Mr. Saunders points
out, however, the species has occurred in Heligoland, and there
is nothing improbable in its having turned up in Yorkshire, to
which I may add that it w^ould have been difficult for a dealer
to have purchased a skin fifty years ago.

Range outside the British Islands. — The following range for this
species is given by Mr. Howard Saunders : — " Arctic Regions,
N.W. Greenland (Disco); Melville Peninsula; Boothia; Point
Barrow, N. Alaska, coming from the direction of Herald
Island; St. Michael's, Alaska (once); icy sea from Bering
Strait to the mouth of the Lena ; Barents Sea between Franz-
Josef Land and Spitsbergen, including the latter; Faeroe
Islands (once); Yorkshire (once); Heligoland (once)." Dr.
Nansen discovered the breeding-place of this species on some
islands which he has called Hvitenland, in lat. 80° 38' N.,
long. 63° E. He whites in the " Daily Chronicle," of
November, 3, 1896: —

"This, the most markedly polar of all bird forms, is easily

\VEDGE-TAIL1£D GULL 47

recognisable from other species of Gull by its beautiful rose-
coloured breast, its wedge-shaped tail, and its airy flight.

" It is, without comparison, the most beautiful of all the
animal forms of the frozen regions. Hitherto it has only been
seen by chance on the utmost confines of the unknown Polar
Sea, and no one knew whence it came or whither it went ; but
here we had unexpectedly come upon its native haunt, and
although it was too late in the year (August, 1895), ^o ^^^^ '^^^
nests, there could be no doubt about its breeding in this region.",

Habits. — Little is known of the habits of this rare Gull ; Mr.
John Murdoch, of the U.S. Signal Corps, procured a number
of specimens at Point Barrow. He writes: — "In 1881, from
September 28 to October 22, there were days when they were
exceedingly abundant in small flocks — generally moving
towards the north-east— either flying over the sea or making
short incursions inshore. Not a single one was seen during
the spring migrations or in the summer, but two or three
stragglers were noticed early in September — a few out among
the loose pack-ice — and on September 21, 1882, they were
again abundant, apparently almost all young birds. They
appeared in large loose flocks, coming in from the sea and
from the south-west, all apparently travelling to the north-east.
They continued in plenty for several days — while the east
wind blew — all following the same track, moving up the
shore, and making short excursions inland at each of the
beach lagoons. After September 28th they disappeared till
October 6th, when, for several days, there was a large flight.
On October 9th in particular there was a continuous stream
of them all day long, moving up the shore a short distance
from the beach and occasionally swinging in over the land.
JVone were seen to return. The nature of our duties at the
station prevented any investigation as to where they came
from or whither they went. They appeared to come in from
the sea, in the west or north-west, and travelled along
the coast to the north-east. They were not observed on
Wrangel Island by either the ' Jeannette,' the 'Corwin,' or the
'Rodgers,' and yet the direction from which they come to
Point Barrow in the fall points to a breeding-ground some-
where in that part of the world. May it not be that some land

48 Allen's Naturallst's library.

yet to be discovered, and north of Wrangel Island, will one
day yield a glorious harvest of the eggs of this splendid species?
It is difficult to form any idea of what becomes of the thousands
which pass Point Barrow to the north-east in the autumn. It
is certain that they do not return along the shore as they w^ent.
Nevertheless, at that season of the year, they must of necessity
soon seek lower latitudes. Perhaps the most plausible sup-
position is that, soon after leaving Point Barrow, perhaps when
they encounter the first ice-pack, they turn and retrace their
steps so far out to sea as to be unnoticed from the land, and
pass the winter on the edge of the ice-field, proceeding north
to their breeding-ground as the pack travels north in the spring."

Nest. — As yet undescribed.

Eggs. — The British Museum contains an egg ascribed to this
species, from Christianshaab, on the south shore of Disco Bay,
in Greenland. The old bird is said to have been shot on the
nest, and its skin sent home with the egg, according to Mr.
Seebohm, to whose collection it formerly belonged. It is figured
in his " Coloured Illustrations of the Eggs of British Birds "
(plate 36, fig 6). The egg of the Wedged-tailed Gull seems
to be very similar in colour and in character to that of Sabine's
Gull, but is a little larger. Axis, 1-9 inch ; diam. 1*3.

THE TRUE GULLS. GENUS LARUS.

Lams, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 224 (1766).

(Type not indicated.)

In all the remaining Gulls the tail is nearly, or quite
square, and in this section of the sub-family Lariiice, Mr.
Saunders places five genera, characterised principally by the
size of the hind-toe and its web. Thus the genera Lariis and
Gaoiajius (the latter containing only one species, G. pacificus
from the southern ocean) have the hind-toe free, and mode-
rately or well-developed.

The genus Lcucopluuis contains only a single species,
L. scoreshyii, from the extreme south of South America, and
has the feet coarse and the webs considerably indented, while
the hind-toe is joined to the inner toe by a rugose membrane.

In the genus Pagophila, which contains only the Ivory Gull,

LITTLE GULL.

49

the hind-toe is joined to the inner one by a strong serrated
membrane, and in the Kitti wakes of the genus Missa the hind-
toe is obsolete or rudimentary.

L THE LITTLE GULL. LARUS MINUTUS.

Larus viinutus, Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs, iii. p. 702, App.
no. 35 (1776); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 373, pis. 599, 599A
(1871); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 191 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 589 (1884); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. iii. p. 301 (1S85); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 647
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 173 (1896J.

Gavia 7ni?iuta, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 613 (1852).

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey, the
wing-coverts like the back, as also the bastard-wing and
primary-coverts ; quills a little darker pearly-grey, with broad
white tips, except on the innermost secondaries, which are
like the back ; the primaries blackish along the inner web, this
black more extended on the first primaries, the outermost
being blackish along the outer web also ; rump, upper tail-
coverts, and tail pure white ; head all round black ; the nape
and hind-neck, as w^ell as the sides of the neck, pure white,
extending over the mantle ; under surface of body, from the
low^er throat downwards, pure white, with a tinge of pink ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries slaty-grey, the median coverts
blackish, like the quill-lining ; " bill deep lake-red (reddish-
brown in preserved skins) ; tarsi and toes vermilion (drying
orange-red); iris brown" (H. Sarmders). Total length, 10-5
inches; culmen, 0*85; wing, 8-91 ; tail, 3"55; tarsus, 1-2.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 10*2 inches ;
wing, 8-3.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Wants the black head of the
summer plumage, the forehead being white, and the vertex,
hinder crown, and nape slaty-grey, blackish behind the eye.
The grey soon changes to black.

Young. — Blackish-brown above, the feathers with white mar-
gins, broader on the scapulars and inner secondaries ; lesser

IS E

5°

ALLEN5; NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

wing-coverts pearly-grey, but the median and greater coverts
blackish, edged with white at the ends-; bastard-wing and
primary-coverts black; the primaries black along the outer
web and down the inner side of the shaft, the rest of the inner
web white for its whole extent, except at the tip, which is
black, with a white spot at the end of the quill ; the inner
primaries slaty-grey externally and along the inner edge of the
shaft, the tip white with a sub-terminal black bar, the black
lessening and the white extending till the secondaries are
almost entirely white, excepting for a longitudinal patch of
blackish towards the end of the outer web ; tail-feathers white,
with a black band across the end of all but the outermost ;
crown of head blackish, the forehead and eyebrows white ; the
sides of the face white, with some streaks of black behind the
eye ; entire under surface of body pure white, including the
under wing-coverts, axillaries, and quill-lining.

Young- in First Winter. — Resembles the winter plumage of the
adult, but is easily distinguished by the black band at the end
of the tail, and the broad black band across the wing, formed
by the median and greater coverts. The white lining to the
quills also distinguishes a young bird at once.

Range in Great Britain. — The Little Gull sometimes visits us
in large numbers, mostly in autumn and winter, but, as might
be expected, the greater number of occurrences take place on
our eastern and southern coasts, those on the western coasts
and in Ireland being much fewer in number.

Range Outside the British Islands. — In summer, Mr. Saunders
says that the present species inhabits the lakes and marshy
districts of sub-Arctic and temperate Europe, extending
southwards in winter to the Mediterranean. Through
temperate Asia it is found up to the mouth of the Amur
River and the Sea of Okhotsk, but has not been noticed in
Mongolia or China. It has once been obtained in Northern
India, and has been known to wander to the Faeroe Islands,
and even to New York State in North America.

Habits. — The small size of the Little Gull distinguishes it at
a glance from any of the other British species, and it is much
more easily approached than most of the latter. It breeds in

GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL. 5 1

colonies, and even in winter is more or less gregarious. It
feeds on small fishes, but also catches insects on the wing,
according to Seebohm, after the manner of a Swallow or a
Goatsucker. In winter the same observer states that it feeds
principally on marine animals of various kinds, which it picks
up on the shore or finds floating on the water.

Nests. — Those found by the late Mr. Meves on Lake Ladoga
were built of leaves, sedges, and grass, the lining being finer
than the rest of the nest, which was placed on almost floating
islets of tangled plants. Both male and female incubate.

Eggs. — Three in number, but sometimes four. Ground-
colour olive-brown to clay-brown, spotted with chocolate brown,
inclining to blackish, the spots in several examples examined
showing a tendency to form confluent blotches near the larger
end, the underlying purplish-grey spots not being very promi-
nent. The similarity of some of the eggs to those of the
Common Tern is evident, and it is doubtful whether some of
the eggs of Z. mimUus in the Seebohm collection are not really
those of Ster72afluviatilis.

The Little Gull was found by Russow nesting in Esthonia in
company with the Common Tern, an unfortunate circumstance
for egg-collectors, as Seebohm says, " for the eggs of the two
species are absolutely indistinguishable." Meves distinguished
them by the colour of the yolk, which was rich orange-red in
the Gull, and ochre-yellow in the Tern. Apropos of this, how-
ever, Seebohm states that he was informed by J. E. Palmer
that he obtained eggs of the Herring Gull in Ireland, and that
those eggs which had a dark ground-colour had deep-coloured
yolks, whilst those with a pale ground-colour had pale yolks.
Axis, I '5-1 -8 inches ; diam. i-i5-i-25.

n. THE GREAT BLACK-HEADED GULL. LARUS ICHTHYAETUS.

Lams ichthyaetus, Pall. Reise Russ. Reichs, ii. p. 713 (1773);
Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 369, pi. 598 (1873); B. O. U.
List Brit. B. p. 190 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.
B. iii. p. 609(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 653 (1889);
Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiv. (1893) ; Saunders, Cat.
B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 176 (1896).

E 2

52

Allen's naturalist's library.

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey, the
wing-coverts like the back ; the greater series slightly edged
with white at the ends ; primary-coverts grey with white shafts
and broad white tips ; primaries white with a sub-terminal band
of black of irregular shape, the first primary black along the
outer web ; inner primaries and outer secondaries grey with
white ends and outer webs ; remainder of secondaries pure
white, except the innermost, which are grey, broadly tipped
with white ; lower rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ;
head all round black, with a spot of white above and below the
eye ; hind neck, sides of neck, and entire under surface of body
pure white, including the under wing-coverts and axillaries ;
"bill orange, with a black band at the angle; tarsi and toes
greenish-yellow, the webs orange " {H. Saunders). Total
length, 29 inches: culmen, 2'7 ; wing, 19*5; tail, 7*65;
tarsus, 3-35.

Adult Female, — Similar to the male, but smaller ; " iris deep
brown ; edge of eyelids bright red, with a conspicuous white
patch on each lid ; bill wax-yellow, the gape and terminal third
dull crimson, with a transverse sub-terminal black band ; feet
dull Indian yellow, the claws black " {A, O. Hume). Total
length, 23 inches; wing, 18-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Lacks the black head of the
summer dress, the head being white, mottled more or less
with blackish streaks and bases to the feathers. Mr. Saunders
says that the black head is often assumed by the middle of
February, and the moult of the primaries is then completed.

Young. — Brown above, mottled with grey or darker brown,
and with greyish-white edges to the feathers ; greater wing-
coverts ashy-grey with dark brown centres, and white tips and
edges to the inner webs ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts and
quills black, ashy-whitish along the inner web ; secondaries
blackish, with white shafts and with white along the edge of the
inner webs, and greyish or white along the outer web ; lower
rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail white, with a broad black
band at the end occupying more than the terminal third of the
feather ; the rump and upper tail-coverts spotted with brown :

GREAT BLACK- HEADED GULL. 53

crown of head ashy-whitish, washed and mottled with brown ;
behind the eye a dusky patch ; sides of face ashy brown ; under
surface of body pure white, with a band of mottled brown spots
across the fore-neck and on the sides of the upper breast ; under
wing-coverts white, mottled with blackish along the edge of the
wings ; primaries ashy-blackish below.

Characters. — The large size of this Black-headed Gull renders
it easily distinguishable from all the other hooded species, none
of which have a wing exceeding fifteen inches.

Rang-e in Great Britain. — This large species has once been
obtained in England, an example in full summer plumage
having been shot off Exmoulh at the end of May or beginning
of June, 1859.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Great Black-headed
Gull breeds in the districts of the Lower Volga and on the
lakes of Central Asia, as far east as Koko-Nor, and it probably
inhabits the whole of Thibet in summer. It visits the eastern
Mediterranean region in winter, and is found along the Red
Sea and in Egypt down to Nubia, while at the same season it
visits the shores of the Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean as
far as Ceylon and Burma.

Habits. — Scarcely anything has been recorded of the habits
of the present species. Prjevalsky states that it is a very
quarrelsome bird, and that its cry is harsh and like the croak
of a raven. Its food consists of fish, Crustacea, reptiles,
locusts, &c.

Nest. — Apparently none, the eggs being laid upon the bare
sand.

Eggs. — Three in number, and very large. The general
colour is clay-brown or olive stone- colour, spotted with black
or brown, with very distinct spots or blotches of inky-grey. In
some eggs the spots are small, so that the egg looks like a
gigantic edition of that of the Gull-billed Tern, but in others,
particularly those with the olive-tinted ground-colour, there are
some very large blotches of black, principally at the larger end.
Axis, 2'95-3"3 inches; diam. 2*05-2 2.

24 Allen's naturalist's library.

in. THE mediterranean black-headed gull, larus

MELANOCEPHALUS.

Larus itielanocephahis, Natterer, Isis, 1818, p. 816 ; Dresser,
B Eur. viii. p. 365, pi. 597, fig. 2 (1878); B. O. U. List
Brit. B. p. 191 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. 111.
p. 604, note (1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 651 (1889);
Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxi. (1895); Saunders,
Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 180 (1896).

Adult Male.— General colour above light pearly-grey, the wing-
coverts like the back; bastard-wing pearly-grey, whitish towards
the end of the feathers ; primary-coverts pearly-grey, as_ also
the primaries, which are white at the ends and along the inner
aspect of the inner web ; the first primary black from the base
of the outer web for about two-thirds of its length ; secondaries
white, the innermost pearly-grey like the back ; lower rump,
upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ; head all round jet-
black, with a little patch of white above and below the eye ;
hind-neck, sides of neck, and under surface of body from
the lower throat downwards, pure white, including the under
wing-coverts and axillaries ; bill rich coral-red, with more or
less of a blackish band in front of the angle; tarsi and toes
red ; a red ring round the eye ; iris dark brown. Total length,
15-5 inches; culmen, 1*45; wing, 11*4; tail, 4-6 ; tarsus, 1-95.

Adult Female — Similar to the male, but a trifle smaller, and
with a less robust bill. Total length, 15 inches; wing, 11 -2.

Adult in Winter.— Lacks the black head of the summer
plumage, the crown being white, with streaks of ashy towards
the nape ; a spot in front of the eye blackish ; ear-coverts
ashy-grey ; bill and feet duller in colour.

Young. — Brown above, like other young Gulls. Distinguished
from the old birds by the colour of the quills ; the primary-
coverts and quills blackish on both webs, the first primary with
a small longitudinal mark of white near the end of the inner
web ; the second and third with a good deal more white on
the inner web, extending from the base to within an inch and
a half of the tip ; the white increasing on the inner primaries

MEDITERRANEAN BLACK-HEADED GULL. 55

and reaching the outer web, the innermost primaries very pale
pearly-grey, with a black spot near the end of the outer web,
which is developed into a large black patch on the secondaries:
tail white, with a broad black band at the end; head white, with
dusky streaks, more distinct on the ear-coverts; bill duller in col-
our, with more black at the angle; tarsi and toes reddish-brown.

Characters. — The adult of the present species may be easily
recognised by its black head, pearl-grey mantle, wing less than
12 inches, and by its coral-red bill, with a dark sub-terminal
zone. (Cf. Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 170.)

According to the characters given by Mr. Saunders for the
distinguishing of the young bird, Z. mela7tocepJiahis has much
more black on the three outer primaries than either Z. Phila-
delphia or Z. ridibimdus, but the amount of white on these quills
varies at different stages of the life of these birds, and imma-
ture specimens require the greatest care to identify them
correctly. In Z. melanocephaliis the young bird has black on
both sides of the shaft of the second and third primary; in
L. Philadelphia the shaft of the third primary has no black
along its inner margin, and very little on the inner web of the
first and second. In Z. ridibundus the young has no black
on the inner line of the shaft in the second and third primaries
and scarcely any on the first one, but the three outer primaries
have a broad border of black along the margin of the inner
web.

Range in Great Britain. — Two examples of this Gull have been
obtained in England. One, a young bird, was shot in Barking
Creek on the Thames in January, t866, and was brought to
Mr. Whitely of Woolwich, who mounted it himself, and after-
wards parted with the specimen to the British Museum. A
second individual was obtained on Breydon Broad, near
Yarmouth, in December, 1886, by Mr. G. Smith. The latter
bird, an adult in winter plumage, was seen in the flesh by
several competent ornithologists, and both of the specimens
have been examined by Mr. Saunders, and identified by him
as being Lariis melanocephalus.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species, as its name
implies, is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, whence it
extends to the Black Sea, and has been said to breed in

56 Allen's naturalist's library.

Hungary. It has been known to occur off tlie mouth of the
Somme in Northern France, and there is, therefore, nothing
remarkable in the fact that it should occasionally turn up in
England.

Habits. — Scarcely any notes have been recorded respecting
the habits of this Gull, which has been found in colonies in
various parts of the Mediterranean, and apparently nests in
many places within this area, though up to the present the
eggs found by Mr. Dresser and other ornithologists in Spain
have turned out to be those of the Gull-billed Tern, with the
flocks of which L. melanocephalus often mingles.

Nest. — As yet undescribed.

Eggs. — Three in number, varying very much in colour, the
ground tint of some being light clay-brown or buff, while
others are very dark chocolate or olive-brown. The spots and
blotches are darker brown, and the underlying markings are
light purplish-grey. Axis, i'9-2T5 inches; diam. i*4-i'5.

IV. Bonaparte's gull, larus philadelpiha.

Sterna pJiiladclpJiia, Ord. in Guthrie's Geogr. 2nd Amer. ed. ii.

p. 319(1815).
Gavia bonapartii (Sw. & Rich.) Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 610

(1852).
Larus Philadelphia, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 192 (1SS3);

Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 584 (1884) ; Seebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 307 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.

p. 645 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxix. (1894) ;

Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 185 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above pearly-grey, including the
wing-coverts ; all the coverts round the bend of the wing, bastard-
wing, and primary-coverts pure white ; first four primaries white,
with black ends, the first one black along the outer web, the second
slightly shaded with grey on the inner web, the third and fourth
more distinctly grey on the latter, the rest of the primaries grey,
with black near the tips, which show a small terminal grey spot,
the black decreasing in extent towards the inner primaries ;
secondaries grey, with narrow white edges to some of the inner
ones ; lower rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail white ; head all

BONAPARTE S GULL. 57

round leaden-black, Avith a spot of white feathers above and
below the eye ; hind neck, sides of neck, and under surface of
body from the lower throat downwards, pure white, including
the under ^ving-coverts and axillaries, the lower greater coverts
tinged with silvery-grey like the quill-lining ; bill deep black ;
tarsi and toes orange-red; iris dark brown. Total length, 12-5
inches; culmen, .1-2; wing, 10-4; tail, 37; tarsus, 1-4.

Adult Female,— Similar to the male. Total length_, 12-2
inches ; wing, io*o.

Adult in Winter Plumaje. — Lacks the black head of the sum-
mer plumage, the crown being white, with some streaks of dusky-
grey towards the nape ; behind the eye a spot of greyish-black ;
tarsi and toes duller in colour.

Young-. — Brown above, mottled with grey bases to the
feathers ; the crown of the head ashy-brown ; the forehead and
eyebrow white like the hind-neck ; sides of face white, with
a tinge of buff, which is found on the sides of the neck,
finishing on the chest ; a spot of black on the ear-coverts ;
wing-coverts mostly blackish, with grey bases and fulvescent or
whitish tips ; the secondaries with sub-terminal black markings
of large size ; primary-coverts white, with broad longitudinal
centres of black ; the primaries differing in markings from those
of the adults, the first one being black along both sides of the
shaft, the second having a little black along the- middle of the
inside of the shaft ; on the third the black on the inside of the
shaft is almost absent, but with a good deal of white on the base
of the outer web ; tail white, with a broad sub-terminal band
of black.

Characters. — The chief characters for distinguishing Bona-
parte's Gull in the fully adult plumage are its black bill and
leaden-black hood. The differences in the young bird from
those of the other British species have been detailed under the
heading of the foregoing species.

Range in Great Britain. — Some half-dozen examples of this
North American species have been obtained within our limits.
The first recorded was one killed near Belfast, in Ireland, in

58 Allen's naturalist's library.

February, 1848 ; another was shot on Loch Lomond by Sir G.
H. Leith Buchanan, in April, 1850 ; while in England four
examples have been chronicled, from Falmouth and Penryn in
January, 1865, one from Penzance in October, 1890, and one
from St. Leonard's in November, 1870.

Range outside the British Islands. — Besides the above-mentioned
occurrences of Bonaparte's Gull in Great Britain, the species
has been recorded once from Heligoland, but this is the only
instance of its capture on the Continent of Europe. It is a
strictly North American species, breeding in the Fur countries,
and migrating in winter on the east as far as Bermuda and
Texas and to California on the west, passing south likewise by
the inland lakes and rivers.

Habits. — Sir John Richardson states that this pretty little
Gull arrives at its breeding places on Great Bear Lake very
early in the season, and before the snow has disappeared. He
says : " The voice and mode of flying are like those of a Tern,
and like those birds, it rushes fiercely at the head of anyone
who intrudes on its haunts, screaming loudly. It has, moreover,
the strange practice, considering the form of its feet, of
perching on posts and trees, and it may often be seen standing
gracefully on the summit of a small spruce fir." Audubon
describes how Bonaparte's Gull follows the shoals of fishes,
and Mr. E. W. Nelson found the species numerous in flocks on
the 19th and 20th of September, along the tide channels near
St. Michael's, in Alaska. They were hovering in parties with
many Short-billed Gulls, close to the surface of the water, and
feeding upon the schools of sticklebacks.

Nest. — Built, according to Sir John Richardson, in a colony,
resembling a rookery, seven or eight in a tree, the nests being
formed of sticks laid flatly.

Eggs. — Three in number, rarely four. Ground-colour olive-
brown, or inclining to dark clay-brown, the spots somewhat
reddish-brown, generally distributed over the egg, the under-
lying spots being dusky-grey. Sometimes the large end of
the egg is crowded with scribbling. Axis, i-75-2-i inches;
diam., 1-3-1 -4.

m

BLACK-HEADED GULL. 59

V. THE BLACK-HEADED GULL. LARUS RIDIBUNDUS.

Lams ridibuiidus^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 225 (1766); Dresser,
B. Eur. viii. p. 357, pis. 596 and 597, fig. i. (1878);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 191 (1883); Saunders, ed.
Yarrell's Brit, B. iii. p. 594 (1884); Seebohm. Hist. Brit.
B. iii. p. 310 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 649
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxi. (1892);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv, p. 207 (1896).

Gavia ridibuiida^ Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 593 (1852).

Gavia capistrafa, Macgill. t.c. p. 605.

{Plate XCIX.)

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey,
including the wing-coverts ; the marginal coverts pure white,
as also the bastard-wing and primary-coverts, the latter slightly
shaded with pearly-grey on the inner feathers ; the three outer
primaries white, with white shafts, black tips, and black edging
to the inner webs ; the first primary black along the outer web,
the second and third also, with a narrow line externally ;
remainder of the primaries grey, with black tips and black
margins to the inner webs, the black disappearing gradually on the
inner primaries, which have a terminal spot of grey ; the fifth pri-
mary white on the outer web, the secondaries entirely grey ; lower
rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail white ; crown of head as far
as the nape, sides of the face, and throat chocolate-brown,
darkening towards the edges of the hood, which is very well
defined ; a ring of white above and behind the eye ; hind-neck
from the nape and sides of neck white, slightly overspreading
the mantle ; entire under surface of body from the lower throat
downward white, with a slight rosy tinge, including the
axillaries and marginal lower wing-coverts; the lower, median,
greater, and primary-coverts grey ; " bill, tarsi, and toes lake-
red ; iris hazel" {H. Saunders). Total length, i6"5 inches;
culmen, i*45j wing, 11*9; tail, 475; tarsus, 17.

Adult Female. — Slightly smaller than the male, as a rule. Total
length, 14-5 inches; wing, 11 '8.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage in
lacking the brown head, the crown being white with a Uttle

6o Allen's naturalist's library.

dusky-grey shade on the hinder part ; a small dusky spot in
front of the eye and another greyish spot behind the ear-coverts.
The white under parts have generally a distinct rosy-blush,
which is also seen on the white of the primaries.

Young. — -Brown above, with sandy-brown • edges to most of
the feathers, which are grey at the base ; the rump and upper
tail-coverts white, with sandy-coloured edgings; tail also white,
with a band of black at the end of all but the outermost
feathers ; lesser wing-coverts white or tinged with grey ; median
wing-coverts brown, like the inner secondaries, edged with
sandy buff; greater coverts pearly-grey; primaries as in the
adult, with tiny whity-brown tips, but with much more black on
both webs, the black approaching the shaft ; secondaries grey,
broadly tipped with white, and with a longitudinal black mark
towards the end of the outer web, decreasing in extent on the
inner secondaries ; head uniform brown, the hind-neck white,
flecked with brown like the sides of the face ; forehead and
eyebrows whitish ; feathers in front of the eye, and a large patch
on the ear-coverts, dusky-blackish ; throat and under surface of
body white ; fore-neck, chest, and sides of body washed with
sandy-brown; "bill dull yellow, passing into black at the angle;
tarsi and toes reddish-yellow" (Saunders.)

Regarding the changes of this bird, Mr. Saunders says :
*' More or less of a brown hood is assumed when the bird is
barely a year old, and the band on the tail is lost by the
following autumn, when the new primaries appear, with — as
has been said — a larger proportion of black than in the adult.
In fact, the duration of the immature phase is very short. The
bird does not breed until the following (or second) spring.
Occasionally the black from the margins of the inner webs of
the three outer quills runs in and reaches the shafts, much
encroaching upon the usual white centres, though not to the
same extent on both wings of the same bird."

Characters. — The dark brown hood of this species easily
distinguishes it when adult, and young birds can be told by the
broad black edging which compasses the inner web of the first
three primary quills.

Rang-e in Great Britain. — This well-known species nests in
colonies in various places throughout the three kingdoms, and

BLACK-HEADED GULL. 6 1

is found nesting in large numbers in Scotland, as far noith as
the Shetland Islands, In Ireland, Mr. Ussher says, it has
breeding colonies, large and small, on bogs and on small
islands in lakes, sometimes of tens of thousands, as on Killeen-
more Bog near Tullamere, sometimes of but a few pairs. It
is reported to breed in Donegal, Antrim, Down, Armagh,
Monaghan, Fermanagh, Cavan, Westmeath, King's County,
Queen's County, Tipperary, Kerry, Limerick, Clare, Galway,
Roscommon, Mayo, and Leitrim. A few breed on Beginish,
a small flat island in the Blasquet group, an unusual instance of
a marine breeding-place.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
found, according to Mr. Saunders, throughout Europe from
the Faeroes, Southern Norway and Sweden, Russia, from
Archangel down to the Mediterranean, and across tempe-
rate Asia to Kamtchatka, where it also breeds. In winter
it visits Senegambia, Nubia, and the Red Sea, the Persian
Gulf and the Indian Ocean, China, Japan, and the Philip-
pines.

Habits. — The name '^ I)/ac/c-hea.ded Gull" is a decided
misnomer for this species, for the hood is br'ozv7i rather than
black, and it is the more inappropriate as there are some Gulls
of this group which have absolutely black caps. It is a
gregarious species, nesting in colonies, and even in the autumn
and winter congregating in flocks, which frequent tidal harbours
and are often a conspicuous feature at pier-heads when the tide
comes in. I have often seen them circling within a few feet of
the heads of the visitors at Gorleston Harbour, on the east
coast, and one of the most interesting features of the day was
to go and throw food to these pretty creatures at the end of
the pier. They are almost equally tame on the Thames when
they ascend the river in winter.

Many accounts have been published of visits paid by
naturalists to " gulleries " of this species, one of the most
renowned being at Scoulton in Norfolk, of which the late Mr.
G. Dawson Rowley has given the following account : —

" The first intimation of the proximity of the Gulls was a
flight of them feeding in a cornfield near Scoulton Church,

62 ai.len's naturalist's library.

which, like some others, has a reed-thatched roof — an indication
of a fenny neighbourhood.

" The sight of the birds of Scoulton, as they rise in a dense
mass, filling the air like snow, is certainly very beautiful ; and
the sound of the multitude of voices is music to the ornitho-
logical ear.

" The Gulls chiefly congregate at each end of ' the heath,' as
the great island is called, on which Scotch firs and birches grow.
If an unfortunate Heron appears, they mob him, and keep even
the swans at a respectful distance, with blows on the head.
After the Gulls leave, however, the Herons frequently take
possession of the mere.

" Mr. Weyland has constructed a path, called the ' twenty-
foot road,' all round, which makes a dry and agreeable
promenade, whence the visitor may view the islets of the
broad water, which are named Tea Island, Boat-house Island,
&:c., «&c.

" Many years ago the greater portion of Scoulton parish was
common land, and the mere is part of the allotment to the
Weyland family. Long may it flourish and protect these
Gulls, who probably are the oldest inhabitants, as they are
mentioned by Sir Thomas Browne as breeding there in his
time ; and they may be coeval with the lake itself. The birds
arrive some time in February.

" The keeper states that he took 6,000 eggs last season, and
these eggs fetch one shilHng per dozen. But in the time of
the Rev. Richard Lubbock — as mentioned in the ' Fauna of
Norfolk,' in my edition (1845) — it is said (p. 123) that an
average season produces more than 30,000 eggs ; five years
before that they took 44,000.

" Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., writes, in 'Rambles of a Naturalist '
(p. 292): — 'In i860, about i6,oco eggs had been gathered.
In 1872, when I went again, only 4,000 were taken. This sad
falling off was due to dry seasons. Brown, the keeper, told me
that once the farmers spread the fields in the neighbourhood
with manure sown with salt, which poisoned the worms, &c.,
upon which the Gulls feed, and that a great number died in
consequence. lie said also that they suffered from Stoats and
Rats; he had known, on one occasion, 150 of the nestlings
and eggs, just chipping, to be destroyed by a Stoat.' "

GREAT I3LACK-HEADED GULL. 63

This Gull is often found inland at some distance from
water, visiting swamps or even following the plough.

Nest. — Generally placed on the ground, though instances
have been known of its being built on a tree, even at seven or
eight feet from the ground, or on a boat-house. Seebohm
states that he has found nests floating on the water, sometimes
slight, at other times quite substantial structures, as big as
Coots' nests. " On the Lower Danube," he writes, " the nests
were also floating on weeds of various kinds, and were of good
size. Although the colony was not a large one, the birds were
demonstrative enough, crying loudly, sometimes a single Kak,
at others Kak, Kak, frequently Kark, and occasionally Kak,
KarkJ'

Eg-gs. — Two to three in number, varying greatly in colour,
occasionally in the same clutch. Mr. Robert Read writes to
me : — " In the vast colonies in which these birds breed, one
may find eggs of every size, shape, and colour, from pale
spotless greenish-blue to deep brown, heavily marked with
black blotches and spots. I have frequently found four, five,
and six eggs in a nest, and on one occasion eight, but in most
of these cases the produce is undoubtedly that of more than
two or more females." The most typical form of egg has the
ground-colour dark olive or dark clay-brown, the spots being of
all shapes and sizes, often forming confluent blotches of black
or brown at the large end of the egg. Many of the overlying
spots have a reddish tint, and the underlying markings being
dusky-grey. Some varieties are bluish in ground-colour,
others nearly white with minute spots, while in a few examples
the ground-colour is a deep coffee-brown, on which the markings
are scarcely perceptible. Axis, 2"o-2*3 inches; diam., 1-4-

VL THE GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL. LARUS MARINUS.

Lams marimts^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 225 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. V. p. 526 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 427,
pi. 604 (1872): B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 189 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 631 (1884) ; Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 323 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.

64 alt.en's naturalist's library.

p. 66i (1889) : Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxv. (1893);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 241 (1896).

{Plate C.)

Adult Male. — General colour above black, with a distinct
wash of slate-colour, the scapulars tipped with white ; marginal
coverts white ; wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-wing,
primary-coverts, and quills slaty- black, the secondaries broadly
tipped with white, forming a distinct bar across the wing ;
first primary with a white tip of nearly three inches in extent ;
second primary also largely tipped with white, with a sub-
terminal spot of black on the inner web ; third primary almost
entirely black, with a white tip ; fourth and fifth primaries with
a broad sub-terminal bar of black, preceded by a narrow bar
of white on the inner web ; rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail
pure white ; head and neck all round, as well as the upper
mantle and the entire under surface of the body, including
the under wing-coverts and axillaries, pure white ; lower
primary-coverts ashy ; quill-lining dark slate-colour, with an
ashy shade along the edge of the inner web, and a kind of
light ashy shade or pale appearance along the inner line of the
shaft; "bill yellow, the angle of the genys orange-red; eyelid
vermilion ; tarsi and toes livid flesh-colour " (H. Saunders).
Total length, 28 inches; culmen, 2*6; wing, i9'5 ; tail, 7*5;
tarsus, 3"o.

Adult Female. — Rather smaller than the male, and with a less
robust bill.

Adult in Winter. — Similar to the summer plumage, but with a
few greyish streaks on the head, and the colour of the bill not
so bright.

Young. — Brown above, thickly mottled with bars of white or
sandy buff or light brown, with occasionally a bar of black on the
feathers, most of which are broadly edged with sandy or white,
with sub-terminal bars or markings of black ; rump, upper tail-
coverts, and tail mottled with black, the latter marbled with
black, in addition to the sub-terminal black bar ; primary-
coverts and primaries black, tipped with white, the inner webs
of the feathers slaty-brown ; secondaries brown, blacker on the
outer web, edged and tipped with white; innermost secondaries

i\

GREAT BLACK -BACKED GULL. 05

mottled and barred like the back ; head and hind-neck white,
streaked with brown, more thickly on the hinder crown and
nape, and very thinly on the lores, sides of face, and lower
throat ; chin and upper throat white, unspotted ; remainder of
under surface of body white, slightly spotted with dusky brown,
but more distinctly on the sides of the breast and flanks, where
the dusky bars and arrow-head markings are very distinct;
under wing-coverls and axillaries white, with dusky bars.

Concerning :he changes in plumage of this species when
immature, Mr. Howard Saunders writes: — "Restricting the
term ' young ' to a bird of two years, at a later stage black
feathers appear on the mantle, and the white edges to the
secondaries are distinct, but the primaries are still without
' mirrors.' Afterwards the primaries have white tips, and the
fourth, fifth, and sixth exhibit what may almost be called sub-
terminal bars, while the outermost quill shows a sub-apical
'mirror' of dull white, and the second quill has an ill-defined
brownish-white spot, the tail being still slightly mottled. I do
not think that the adult plumage is attained before the bird
is in its fifth year, and even then the amount of white on the
two or three outer primaries continues to increase with age."

Nestlings. — Ashy-grey above, mottled with blackish-brown
spots, blacker and more scattered on the head and hind-neck ;
under parts white, the breast tinged with orange- buff.

Characters. — The large size (wing over 19 inches), slaty-
black back, and white head distinguish this species when adult,
as well as the large white tip to the first primary. The size is
the best guide for the determination of the young birds, added
to the powerful bill, which far exceeds that of the Lesser Black-
backed or Herring Gulls.

Range in Great Britain. — The present species breeds more
abundantly in Scotland than in England, where only a few
isolated nesting-places are known on the south-western and
western coasts. Mr. Ussher says that in Ireland one or more
pairs breed on the summits of some stacks and islands off
Donegal, Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Galway,
and Mayo, but there is a considerable colony on the Cow Rock,
off Dursey Head, Cork, and another colony of at least fifty
pairs on the Bills Rocks, off Achill, Mayo.

66 ALLEN'S naturalist's Lir.RAKY.

Range outside the British Islands. — Northern Europe, from the
Lower Petchora westward to Iceland, and down to about
50" N. (breeding) ; in winter to the Canaries, and along the
Mediterranean (rarely) to the Egyptian coast ; also on inland
waters. Greenland, and also the east coast and the Great
Lakes of North America to Labrador (breeding) ; in winter to
Florida, and accidentally in Bermuda {H. Sminders).

Eabits. — This is one of the largest and most powerful of all
the British Gulls, and is a great robber, for besides its ordinary
food of fish, it devours eggs and young birds, and will attack
any sickly or wounded bird or even a sheep. It may, indeed,
be said to be practically omnivorous, and will even eat carrion.
It is less gregarious than the other Gulls, and is seldom seen
even in small companies, while in winter it is generally solitary.
It is a very wary bird, and I have only managed to capture
individuals by baiting a long line at night-time and leaving
it on the mud-flats. In this way I caught several at Pagham
Harbour years ago, both old and young birds. "The notes," says
Seebohm, " are loud and harsh ; almost as harsh and almost as
unmusical as those of the Raven. Its alarm note might be repre-
sented by the syllable Kyaoiik, and its call-notes as ag ag-ag. In
winter these birds often congregate where fishing is going on."

Nest. — Placed on rocks, or on an islet at some distance from
the sea. The nest is a carelessly-made structure, a depression
in the ground being lined with grass or sea-weed, with an
occasional twig or two.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, of large size. Ground-
colour clay-brown, inclining to stone-colour, with scattered
spots of dark reddish-brown or black, with underlying grey
spots and blotches. The dark overlying spots have not much
tendency to coalesce, and are, in some instances, very scattered
and of a pale ochre-brown colour. A pair in the Seebohm
collection in the British Museum are bluish-white, with hardly
a spot on them ; they were obtained in South-west Sweden.
Axis, 2"75-3"i5 inches ; diam., 2*i-2*2.

Vn. THE LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL. LARUS FUSCUS.

Larus fiisciis, Linn Syst. Nat. i. p. 225 (1766); Macgill. Brit.
^- V. p. 538 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 421, pi. 603

V,

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL. 67

(1873); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 189 (1883); Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 624 (1884); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. iii. p. 319 (1885) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 659
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii. (1893);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 250 (1896).

{Plate CI.)

Adult Male. — Similar to L. marinus, but very much smaller,
and easily distinguished by the outer primaries, which have
not the ends white for nearly three inches, but are blackish
with a white sub -terminal bar before a black tip. General
colour above slate-grey, with the same white ends to the
secondaries and scapulars ; the head, neck, mantle, and under
surface of body white, as also the rump, upper tail-coverts,
and tail ; " bill yellow, the angle of the genys red ; tarsi and
feet lemon-yellow ; iris pale straw-yellow '' [Saunders). Total
length, 19*5 inches; culmen, 2'i5; wing, 16*4; tail, S'^S \
tarsus, 2 '6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but smaller, and with a
less robust bill. Total length, i9'o inches ; wing, 16*4.

Adult in Winter. — Differs from the summer plumage in having
the head and neck streaked with dusky-brown.

Young. — Brown above, with broad white margins, the head
brown, streaked with white; sides of face ashy brown, darker on
the ear-coverts, narrowly streaked with dusky ; throat white ;
remainder of the under surface of body streaked and mottled
with ashy-brown, which is the prevailing colour of the under
parts, the sides of the body barred with darker brown ; the
tail-feathers black for the terminal half, white barred with
black on the basal half, the black end decreasing towards the
outer feathers. The bill is slaty-grey, the feet flesh-coloured,
and the iris brown. It takes four years for the fully adult
plumage to be gained.

Nestling. — Greyish-buff, streaked and mottled with black on
the upper parts and throat.

Characters. — In examining the series of adult Lesser Black-
backed Gulls in the British Museum, one is struck by the
great variation in the colour of the back, from slaty-grey to

F 2

6S Allen's naturalist's library.

black. On this question Mr. Saunders writes: — "The principal
characteristics of Z. fiiscus are the comparatively long tarsus
and the small delicate foot. The colours of the mantle and
wings are so variable in shade that the palest examples might
be mistaken for Lariis offijiis, but for the large size and coarser
foot of the latter. The blackest examples of L. fuscns are
found indifferently in the Faeroes, Norway, Egypt, and on the
Red Sea ; the lightest are, perhaps, from Scotland, and between
the extremes there is every gradation." The smaller size dis-
tinguishes the present species from the Greater Black-backed
or Herring-Gulls, and, when adult, the colour of the legs further
serves to separate it from the former species.

Range in Great Britain. — ^The present species is a resident
throughout our islands, but is somewhat local in its breeding-
haunts^ though, where this Gull nests, it is generally in
such numbers that it requires to be kept in check. Mr.
Saunders observes : — " In Scotland closely- packed settlements
may be found — far too plentifully for game preservers — up to
the northernmost Shetlands ; especially along the western
coast, within the shelter of the outer Hebrides, though on the
far side of that group, the Herring-Gull predominates." As
regards Ireland, Mr. Ussher's note is -as follows : — " Breeds,
often in large, numerous colonies, on the sea-cliffs and marine
islands of Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Dublin, Wexford,
Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, and Sligo. It
is the species of Gull most abundantly distributed on our
coasts in the breeding-season."

Range outside the British Islands. — " Northern Europe, from the
Dwina westward to the Faeroes (but not in Iceland), and
southward to the Mediterranean (breeding) ; in winter to tlie
Canaries, Senegal, Fantee, Bonny, Egypt, Nubia, the Red Sea
(said to be resident on the last), to Fao on the Persian Gulf.
Very rare in the North Caspian, and practically not found east
of the line of the Dwina, where the range of Lams affinis
begins" (Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 253). Occasion-
ally it ranges farther eastward than the above-mentioned limits,
as, since the above was written, Mr. Saunders has identified a
specimen procured by Mr. H. L. Popliam on the Ycnesei as
L. fuscns (Ibis, iSq7, p. 106).

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL. 69

Habits. — Both in the breeding season and during the autumn
and winter the present species is gregarious, and. even in the
height of summer, small flocks of the Lesser Black-backed Gull
may be observed on the flat and open shores of our south-
eastern coasts — evidently non-breeding birds. It is decidedly
the Gull most in evidence on our coasts, excepting the Black-
headed Gull, and is easily procured by any gunner who lies up
for it as it flies inland to the ploughed fields or fallow. Like
other Gulls, its principal food consist of fish, but it will often
be found following the plough, and is frequently to be observed
among the shipping on tidal rivers. '^ It is a wonderful sight,"
says Seebohm, "on approaching one of the Fame Islands, to
see the green mass sprinkled all over wath large white-looking
birds, every one standing head to wind, like innumerable
weathercocks ; and it is still more wonderful, when a shot is
flred, to see the flutter of white wings as every bird rises in
haste, and to hear the angry cries which each bird makes as
soon as the exertion of getting fairly launched into the air is
over, and it finds breath enough to scream defiance to the
invader of its home. In half a minute thousands of birds are
flying backwards and forwards in every direction, like a living
snow-storm. The various cries of the birds almost exactly
resemble those of the Herring-Gull, The angry Kyeok (which
sounds at a distance when the birds are quarrelling, like ak^
ak, ak), and the good-natured ha, Jia^ /la, or <?;/, an, an, are
constantly heard."

Nest. — A slovenly structure of dry grass and dead marine
plants and sea-weed.

E^g-s. — Three in number, occasionally four. A curious
instance of a nest with four eggs is to be seen in the Natural
History Museum. This nest was placed in the middle of a
sheep-track, and the sheep, in passing to and fro, had to jump
over the back of the sitting bird.

Mr. Robert Read writes to me: — "Three is the usual number
of eggs in one set, but I have taken four from a nest. In this
instance they w^ere very heavily marked and evidently laid by
the same bird. The case in the Natural History Museum is
another instance of four eggs being found in a nest, although,
to judge from the eggs alone, one could not be certain that

yo ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

they were all laid by the same bird." Although some of the
eggs of L. fusais look like small rei^rodiictions of eggs of
L. inarinus^ the general tone of the colour in the Lesser Black-
backed Gull is decidedly darker, and varies from clay-brown
or olive-brown to dark chocolate. The black overlying spots
run somewhat into blotches, which are often congregated at
the larger end of the ^gg. Axis, 2 '6-2 -85 inches; diam.,
1-8-1 -95.

VIII. THE HERRING-GULL. LARUS ARGENTATUS.

Lanis argentatiis, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 600 (1788, ex Briinn.);
Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 544 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii.
p. 339, pi. 602, fig. 2 (1873) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 188
(1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit, B. iii. p. 613 (1884);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 316 (1885); vSaunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 655 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii.
(1893); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 260 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearly-grey ; wang-
coverts like the back, the secondariesbroadly tipped with white,
like the scapulars, forming a conspicuous bar across the wing ;
bastard-wing pearly-grey, the outer feathers white ; primary-
coverts and primaries darker grey ; first primary blackish, with
a grey wedge towards the base of the inner web, the tips white,
preceded by a narrow black bar (often absent), which is again
preceded by a broad band of white ; the second primary
with a spot of white at a little distance from the end of
the inner web, both these quills grey at the basal portion of
the inner web, this grey gradually increasing in extent until the
black becomes but a band near the end of the inner primaries,
and finally disappears on the innermost ones; upper tail-coverts
and tail pure white, as well as the head and neck all round
and the entire under surface of the body. Total length, 22-5
inches; culmen, 2*2; wings, i6'5 ; tail, 6"6 ; tarsus, 2*5.

The white markings on the first two primaries vary consider-
ably. Sometimes the black sub-terminal black band is entirely
absent, and the whole tip is white for more than two inches, in
other individuals the white spot near the end of the inner web
of the second primary is totally absent.

liERRING-GULL. "] I

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but smaller. Total length,
20-5 inches; wing, 157. Mr. Saunders says that, irrespective
of sex, there is " great individual variation."

Adult in Winter. — Similar to the summer plumage, but with
brownish-grey streaks on the head and neck.

Young. — On the changes of plumage undergone by the young
bird, it is better to quote from Mr. Saunders, as the succession
of plumages appears to be somewhat intricate. According to
him (Cat. B. xxv. p. 264), in the first autumn, the upper parts
are streaked and mottled with brown and greyish-buff ; quills
dark umber, with paler inner webs and whitish tips to most ;
rectrices similar, but more or less mottled with whitish at the
bases of the two or three outer pairs ; upper tail-coverts brown,
with bufifish-white tips ; under parts nearly uniform brown at
first, but afterwards brownish grey, mottled ; bill blackish, paler
at the base of the lower mandible.

In the second autumn the head is nearly white, streaked with
greyish-brown ; the upper parts are barred with brown on a
greyish ground, though no pure grey feathers have yet made
their appearance on the mantle ; quills paler ; tail more mottled
with white at the bases of all the feathers.

In the third autumn the feathers of the mantle are chiefly grey,
with some brownish streaks down the shafts ; a faint sub-apical
spot begins to show on the outermost primary ; the tail-coverts
are partly white, and the dark portion of the rectrices is much
broken up ; under parts nearly white.

In the fourth autumn the sub-apical patch on the first
primary is larger, and the quills from the fifth upwards are
banded with black and tipped with white ; tail-feathers white,
slightly vermiculated with brown ; bill greenish-yellow basally,
reddish-black at the angle.

At the moult of the fifih autumn all brown markings are lost,
the primaries have white tips, black bars and grey wedges,
though the proportion of dark colouring in the quills is greater
than it is in older birds.

Characters. — Though the male Herring-Gull is sometimes
nearly as big as a female Great Black-backed Gull, it is easily
told by its much less massive bill and by the pearl-grey back.
This distinguishes the old birds, and although there is some

72 ALLEN S NATURALLSTS LIBRARY.

resemblance to each otlier in the young of the Greater and
Lesser Black-backed Gulls and that of the Herring-Gull, the
dimensions will generally serve to distinguish the species at all
ages.

Range in Great Britain. — The Herring-Gull breeds in all parts
of Great Britain where suitable places for its nesting are
available. It is almost entirely a coast species and seldom
nests on inbnd waters or lochs. It is the most noticeable
of all our indigenous species of Gull, and Mr. R. J. Ussher
also says that it is the most widely distributed of any Gull on
the coasts of Ireland during the breeding season.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species breeds
in Northern Europe down to the coasts of Northern France,
and to the westward of the White Sea. It is also found in
North America, breeding as far south as lat. 40° N. on the
Atlantic side, and on the west it is known from the Yukon
River to California. In winter it extends to the West Indies
and the Mexican coasts, while European individuals visit the
Mediterranean in winter, as well the I31ack and Caspian Seas.

Habits. — The Herring-Gull is principally a shore-feeder, and
its name is derived from its supposed habit of following the
shoals of small herring-fry, while k is often seen in some
numbers round the fishing-boats, where the birds pounce down
on any scraps or offal which may be thrown overboard. Like
other Gulls this species sometimes comes inland and feeds on
worms, grubs, and grain. It is a great robber of eggs, " and
when," writes Mr. Saunders, " at some noted and accessible
breeding-place of sea-birds, such as Lundy Island, a gun is
fired by a tourist-party for the childish pleasure of seeing an
immense number of birds on the wing, then is the opportunity
of the Herring-Gulls, and every unprotected egg of Guillemot or
Gannet is swept from the ledges in an instant ! "

Seebohm states that the caU-note of this Gull resembles
the syllables /id-M-Zia, or more exactly, han-hdn-han ; the
alarm-note. resembles the syllables Ky-eok, pronounced in a
guttural manner; and when the bird is unusually excited, its
note is rapidly repeated and sounds like Kak-dk-dk !

Nest. — Mr. Robert Read says that he has generally found the
Herring- Gull nesting among larger colonies of the Lesser Black-

COMMON GULL. 73

backed Gull on the Fame Islands, Ailsa Craig, &c., and such
appears to have been the experience of Mr. Saunders and other
naturalists. The nest is often slight, but is occasionally a
bulky structure of grass and seaweeds, with a lining of finer
grass and a few straws or stalks of the sea-campion. It is
placed on a slope of a cliff or on the grass near the edge of
the latter, sometimes in a hollow of the ground in the low-
lands or in the crevice of a rock. In America it is known to
build in trees or bushes.

Eggs. — Two or three in number, generally the latter, and very
similar to those of the Lesser Black-backed and Common
Gulls. There is, however, a greater variation in the eggs of
the Herring-Gull than in those of the two last-named species,
and a very beautiful reddish variety is found near Vardo in the
north of Norway, which Seebohm believed to be the egg of the
Glaucous Gull. On this point, however, Mr. Henry Pearson
and Mr. Edward Bidwell have made some remarks in the
"Ibis" for 1894 (p. 236). They procured some of these red
eggs tliemselves in Northern Norway, in a district where there
were no ulaucous Gulls. They write : — "The natives ascribe
them to ihe Herring-Gull and say that, however large the
colony may be, the red eggs are never found in more than one
nest in the colony."

The ground-colour varies in the same way as in tlie eggs of
the Lesser Black-backed Gull, but the Herring-Gull rarely seems
to lay eggs of the dark chocolate type. As, however, this is
sometimes the case, it may be said that the eggs of the two
species are so similar that there is no character by which they
can be distinguished, and that too much care cannot be taken in
their identification. Axis, 2-6-3"05 inches; diam., i*85-2i.

IX. THE COMMON GULL. LARUS CANUS.

Lams canus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 224 (1766); Macgill. Brit.
B- V. p. 575 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 381, pi. 600
(1873); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 189 (1883)': Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 613 (1884); Seebohm, Hist,
Brit. B. iii. p. 316 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 655
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891);
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 277 (1896).

74 Allen's naturalist's library.

Adult Male. — General colour above delicate pearl-grey ; the
wing-coverts like the back ; the secondaries and scapulars
plainly tipped with white, forming a bar across the wing ;
bastard-wing and primary-coverts pearly-grey, the outer ones
white ; primaries blackish, with a small white tip and a broad
sub-terminal bar of white on the two outermost ; the first
primary with a grey base to the inner web, much more extended
at the base of both webs in the second primary, and gradually
extending on the other quills till they are almost entirely grey,
with a black sub-terminal bar before the black tip ; the inner
primaries and all the secondaries grey with a white tip ; rump,
upper tail-coverts, and tail pure white ; head and neck all
round, as well as the under surface of the body, pure white,
including the under wing-coverts and axillaries ; quill-lining
dusky-grey, lighter grey towards the base, and with the same
pattern of white sub-terminal bars as the upper surface ; " bill
greenish-yellow at the base, rich yellow terminally ; tarsi and
toes greenish-yellow ; iris golden-brown ; orbital ring ver-
milion " {Saunders). Total length, i8 inches ; culmen, 1*5;
wing, i3"6; tail, 5*4; tarsus, 2*1.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but smaller. Total
length, 17*0 inches; wing, 12 "8.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but with the head and neck streaked with ashy-brown, and
with the tarsi and toes olivaceous.

Young. — Brown above, with white or buff bars and margins
to the feathers ; under surface of body white, mottled with
brown or ashy-brown. The young bird thus resembles the
immature Herring-Gull, and is of the same pale colour. It
is, however, easily recognisable from the young of the latter
species, as well as from that of the Lesser Black-backed Gull,
by its smaller size. The young birds go through similar
changes of plumage to those of the allied species of Gull, and
^Nlr. Saunders says that the bird only gains its fully adult livery,
and breeds, when nearly three years old.

Characters. — In its light pearly-grey mantle and back, the
Common Gull resembles the Herring-Gull, but can always be
told by its smaller size, the wing never exceeding 16 inches in

GLAUCOUS GULL. 75

length. By this means also the young birds of the two species
can be distinguished.

Range in Great Britain, — This species breeds in Scotland, but
Mr. Saunders states that he is not aware of any nesting-place
in England, or, indeed, south of the Border. In Scotland,
however, it breeds not only on the coasts, where such are
favourable, but on inland lochs as far north as the Hebrides,
the Orkneys, and Shetland Isles. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher
says, it breeds in small colonies, and in separate pairs, on
islands in lakes (usually near the coast) of Donegal, Mayo,
and Galway, but sometimes at a distance from the sea, as in
Lough Mask and Lake Dahybawn in Mayo, an island on the
latter containing a colony of some fifty nests. There are some
marine breeding-places, as on islands in Blacksod Bay, and a
few pairs breed on one of the Blasquet Islands, off Kerry.

Range outside the British Islands. — According to Mr. Saunders,
the Common Gull is found in Europe and Northern Asia down
to about ^^° N. Lat, where it breeds. In winter it is found
in the Mediterranean Basin, the Nile Valley, and the Persian
Gulf. It also extends from Kamschatka to Japan and China.
It is a rare bird in Iceland, and only one instance of its capture
in North America has been authenticated, a young bird having
once been obtained in Labrador.

Habits. — These resemble those of the other British Gulls
described above. It is more or less gregarious, but in the
autumn many single birds are to be observed on our coasts
and estuaries. Its food consists of fish, but it will also come
inland and follow the plough for the sake of worms and grubs,
while, like other Gulls, it will also eat young birds. In some
parts of its range it adopts the deserted nest of a Hooded
Crow, or other bird, in a high tree, on the summit or the
branches of which it will be seen to perch.

Nest. — A rough structure of grass or seaweed in the open,
but sometimes it will be placed on the ledge of a cliff, or on
the top of a rock, or even, as remarked above, on a tree. Mr.
Pvobert Read writes to me : — " I have always found the nests
of the Common Gull on the shores of fresh-water lakes, or on
the islands in one of these waters. The birds are particularly
fond of nesting on isolated rocks, sometimes on a boulder,

76 ■ Allen's naturalist's library

only a foot of which is projecting above water. In Sweden,
on a group of large rocky islets in a fresh-water lake, I never
found more than one nest on each islet."

Eggs. — Three in number. Ground-tint of a clay- or olive-
brown to chocolate, with reddish-brown or black spots and streaks
distributed fairly over the whole egg, and seldom forming
blotches. Sometimes the dark spots show up faintly, and the
grey underlying ones are almost as distinctly indicated. Axis,
2'i 5-2*45 inches; diam., 1-6-17.

X. THE GLAUCOUS GULL. LARUS HYPERBOREUS.

Larus hyperhoreus, Gunnerus, in Leem's Beskr. Finn. Lapp.

p. 283 (1767).
Larus glaucus^ Fabr. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. \). 557 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 433, pi. 605 (1877); B. O. U.

List Brit. B, p. 187 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B.

iii. p. 636 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 330

(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 663 (1889); Lilford,

Col. Fig. Brit. B. parts xxiii. xxvii. (1893-94) ; Saunders,

Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 289 (1896).
[Plate CI I.)
Adult Male. — General colour above very pale pearly-grey, the
wing-coverts like the back ; the marginal-coverts round the
bend of the wing white ; bastard-wing and primar3'-coverts
grey; primaries pearly-grey^ with white shafts, gradually
becoming white at the ends; the secondaries and scapulars
broadly tipped with white; the rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail
white ; head and neck all round, as well as the whole of the
under surface of the body, pure white; "bill yellow, orange-red
at the angle ; tarsi and toes light fleshy pink in life ; iris,
yellow; orbital ring, orange" {H. Saunders) Total length,
25 inches; culmen, 2*75 ; wing, i8*o; tail, 6*7; tarsus, 2'8.

Adult Female. — Smaller, often considerably so, according to
]\Ir. Saunders, who says there is also considerable difference in
the size of individuals, irrespective of sex.

Adult in Winter. —Similar to the summer plumage, but having
the head and neck streaked with pale ashy-brown.

Young. — Very pale ashy-brown both above and below, the
bases of the feathers whiter, the back and wings mottled with

\.

'A

M

^^i

1

GLAUCOUS GULL. 77

broken bars of pale brown ; the secondaries white at the ends
and mottled with brown like the back; the primaries isabelline,
ashy-white on the inner webs, and with slight remains of brown
markings at the ends; upper and under tail-coverts white,
distinctly mottled with brown ; the tail-feathers ashy-brown,
mottled on the edges with white ; crown of head ashy-brown,
slightly darker than the mantle, and streaked like the side of
the face ; under surface of the body ashy-brown, the throat
whiter, streaked with ashy ; under tail-coverts white, barred
with light ashy-brown ; the under wing-coverts and axillaries
ashy-brown like the breast ; bill ochre-yellow to the angle, then
blackish to the tip ; tarsi and toes brownish.

Mr. Saunders says that, after the moult of the next year, both
the upper and under surfaces are much lighter, and pale grey
feathers begin to show on the mantle, the outer primaries being
all but white. In immature birds the mottlings of the upper
surface gradually disappear, and for a short time the bird
appears to be creamy w^iite (in which phase of plumage it has
received the name of L. hntchiiisi). At the subsequent moult
the pearl-grey mantle is assumed, but the new tail-feathers
show some faint brownish mottlings until the next year.

Nestling-. — Of a stone-grey colour, slightly tinged with yellow-
ish-buff below ; the back mottled with ashy-brown, and the
head spotted with black.

Characters. — The Glaucous Gull is distinguished by its large
size, white head and tail, and especially by its white quills,
with a faint shade of grey at the base. Only two Gulls of the
white-winged group answer to this latter character, the Glaucous
Gull and the Iceland Gull.

Range in Great Britain. — This is an Arctic species, which visits
us in winter only, and is then chiefly noticed in the northern
parts of the British Islands. It is a more or less regular
visitor, sometimes occurring in numbers, but less often on the
west and south coasts ; young birds predominating.

Range outside tlie British Islands. — A circumpolar species dur-
ing the breeding season, wandering southwards in winter to
the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas ; also recorded
from Japan. In America it visits the Great Lakes, and reaches
to Bermuda and Florida, and on the west coast of California

^S Allen's naturalist's library.

Habits. — The " Burgomaster," as this great Gull is often
called, is a rapacious and omnivorous species, robbing other
Gulls of their prey, and feeding on fish, offal, Crustacea, and
young birds. Seebohm thus describes his experiences of the
species in the north of Norway : — " The Glaucous Gull breeds
on the cliffs at Vardo, and a large flock, composed principally
of immature and entirely of non-breeding birds, frequents the
stretches of sand left at low water near Vadso, thirty miles to
the south of the breeding colony. When I was at this town,
the Glaucous Gulls were always to be seen at all hours flying
about the harbour ; but by far the greater portion of them
retired to a distant sand-bank, which extended from the
southern promontory of the island in the Varanger Fjord,
apparently to roost, as the sun approached the north. They
were very noisy before finally settling down to rest, continually
uttering their loud and harsh note, which may be represented
by the syllables ^ cut -Ink. ^ x\lthough at Vardo the Glaucous
Gull breeds on the precipitous cliffs, Harvie-Brown and I
afterwards found its nest on one of the low flat islands which
separate the lagoon of the Petchora from the Arctic Ocean.
This island was a flat desert of sand, unrelieved by a blade of
grass, and it rises very slightly above the level of the sea, which
varies very little (only five or six inches) with the tide."

Nest. — The nests found by Seebohm on the Petchora are
described by him as " heaps of sand hollowed slightly at the
apex, and lined with some irregularly disposed tufts of sea-
weed." Mr. Trevor-Battye thus describes the breeding of the
species on the island of Kolguev: — "The nests of the Glaucous
Gulls which we visited were situated on the highest ridge of
the outer sand-banks to the south of Scharok Harbour. They
were visible from a very long distance, and proved to be lumps
formed of sand and mixed with sea-weeds and great quantities
of hydrozoa {^Scriularia and others), on which flourished
Arenaria peploides. The sand had in many cases originally
collected round drifted timber, and the birds had taken advan-
tage of this to raise upon it a pile some two feet and more in
height. As the Samoyeds rob these nests constantly, one
wonders that any young get off. Hyland was so violently
mobbed by these birds, which stooped right down at his head,
that he shot two ' in self-defence.' "

ICELAND GULL.

19

Eggs. — Three in number. There is nothing very distinctive
about the colour or markings of the eggs, which look like
larger editions of those of the Lesser Black-backed Gull.
Some examples are very sparsely marked, and have the spots
few and far between, or else have a large blotch of black near
the large end of the egg. Axis, 2'g^-T,'o^ inches; diam.,
2 -0-2 -1 5. To the red variety of the Herring-Gull's egg, figured
by Seebohm as the egg of the Glaucous Gull, I have already
alluded {snpra^ p. 73).

XL THE ICELAND GULL. LARUS LEUCOPTERUS.

Lariis leucopierus^ Faber, Prodr. Isl. Orn. p. 91 (1822); Macgill.
Brit. B. V. p. 566 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 439,
pi. 606 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 188 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 642 (1884); See-
bohm, Plist. Brit. B. iii. p. -^^^^ (1885); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 665 (1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxvi.
(1893) ; Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 295 (1896).

Adult Male. — Similar to Z. hyperboreits, but smaller, with pro-
portionately longer wings ; back delicate pearly-grey, with white
ends to the secondaries and scapulars ; primaries pearly-grey,
white at the ends and along the inner webs ; rump, upper tail-
coverts, and tail white ; head and neck all round, as well as the
entire under parts, pure white. Total length, 23-5 inches ;
culmen, 1*9; w^ing, 16*5; tail, 6'6 ; tarsus, 2*4.

Adult Female.- -Similar to the male, but smaller.

Young-. — Like that of L. hyperboreus^ and having the under
surface light ashy-brown, with very pale brown mottlings on
the upper surface. The size is, however, smaller.

Characters. — Like L. hyperboreus, the present species has white
quills, but is distinguished from the latter bird by its smaller
size. Mr. Saunders observes (Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 297) :
— " On the wing L. leucopterus has a much more buoyant flight
than Z. glaKcus, and the length of wing, in proportion to its
comparatively small bulk, is very noticeable ; but prepared and
over-stuffed skins sometimes offer difficulties. Still, in spite of
its longer wing in proportion to its bulk, the largest male
Z. kucopter-us does not attain to the length of wing found in
the smallest Z. Rlaiicusy

8o Allen's naturalist's library.

Range in Great Britain. — This small representative of the
Glaucous Gull is only a visitor to Great Britain, though it some-
times appears in some numbers off the coasts of Scotland ; it
is of rarer occurrence off the English and Irish coasts.

Range outside the British Islands. — The breeding-range of the
Iceland Gull is in the Arctic regions, in Greenland, Jan Mayen
Island, and, according to Saunders, perhaps on the American
side of Baffin Bay. In winter it visits Iceland and, the Faeroes,
as well as the shores of Scandinavia and the Baltic, and the
north-west of Europe down to the Gulf of Gascony in severe
seasons. In North America it descends to the latitude of
Boston.

Habits. — The only account of the habits of the Iceland Gull
is that of Faber, of which an epitome is given in Saunders's
edition of Yarrell's " British Birds " (iii. p. 646). About the
middle of September both old and young birds appear off the
coast of Ireland for the winter, disappearing about the end of
April or the beginning of May. " These birds," says Faber,
''were so tame that they came on land up to my winter dwell-
ing on the northern coast to mop up the entrails of fish thrown
away by the inhabitants, and disputed fiercely for them with
the Ravens. I had one of these Gulls so tame that it came
every morning to my door at a certain time to obtain food and
then flew away again. It gave me notice of its arrival by
uttering its cry. This Gull indicated to the seal-shooters in
the fjord where they should look for the seals by continually
follov\ing their track in the sea, by hovering in flocks, and with
incessant cries, over them ; and whilst the seals hunted the
sprat and the capeling towards the surface of the water, these
Gulls precipitated themselves down upon the fish and snapped
them up. In like manner they follow the track of the cod-fish
in the sea, and feed upon the booty hunted up by this fish of
prey. . . . This Gull was my weather-guide in winter. If
it swam near the shore, and there, as if anxious, moved along
with its feathers puffed out, then I knew that on the following
day storms and snow were to be expected. In fine weather it
soared high in the air. Hundreds often sit on a piece of ice,
and in that way are drifted many miles. In its manners the
Iceland Gull differs from the Glaucous Gull, which has the

iVORY GULL. 81

habits of the Greater Black-backed Gull, and moves with more
energy. The n.iture of the Iceland Gull resembles more that
of the Herring-Gull; its deportment and flight are more grace-
ful ; it hovers over its prey, is somewhat greedy, always active,
and is not afraid to fight with equal, or superior, antagonists
for its food."

Nest. — Has apparently not been described beyond the fact
that it is a depression in the bare ground or on the ledges of
precipices (Cf. Saunders, I.e.).

Eg-g-s. — Two or three in number, laid early in June. Tlie
British Museum contains several specimens from the Seebohm
and Gould collections. They are very similar to the eggs of
Z. hyperhoreus^ but are rather smaller, and have the ground-
colour dark clay-brown, spotted all over with chocolate-brown,
and with very evident underlying spots of purplish-grey. Some
have the ground-colour greyish-olive, and on this type of egg
the spots and blotches are very distinct and plentifully dis-
tributed over the surface of the egg. Axis, 2 7-2 '9 inches;
diam., •85-1*2.

THE IVORY GULLS. GENUS PAGOPllILA.
Fagophila, Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. pp. 69, 196 (1829).
Type P. eburnea (Phipps).
The beautiful Ivory Gull is the sole representative of the
genus Paf^opliila, which is thoroughly Arctic in its habitat. Its
uniform snowy plumage finds a curious parallel in the Antarctic
Snowy Petrel (Pagodroma nivea) of the Southern Ocean. The
genus Fagophila is characterised by the square tail, the hind-
toe joined to the inner one by a strong, serrated membrane,
all the nails being large and curved, the webs and toes being
rugose, while the tibia is feathered nearly to the tibio tarsal
joint. (Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. i6i.)

The genus is represented by a single species, Pagophila
eburnea, which is circumpolar in its distribution.

L THE IVORY GULL. PAGOPHILA EBURNEA.

Larus eburiieus, Phipps, Voy. N. Pole, App. p. 1S7 (1774);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 337 (1885).
Cetosparacfes eburtiais, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 508 (1852).

ic G

§2 Allen's naturalist's library.

Fir^ophila ehuniea. Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 349, pi. 595 (1877);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 186 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yar-
rell's Brit. B. iii. p. 656 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 669
(1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxvi. (1893) ; Saun-
ders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 301 (1896).

Adult Male. — Entirely snow-white above and below ; the quills
also white, with white shafts and a faint shade of grey on the
inner web; "bill, gamboge-yellow terminally, merging into
greenish-grey on the basal two-thirds of both mandibles ; tarsi
and toes black ; iris dark hair-brown; orbital ring brick-red"
{H. Saunders). Total length, 18 inches; culmen, 17; wing,
14*2; tail, 62; tarsus, 175.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly smaller, and
Mr. Saunders states that there is a tendency to show a
shorter tarsus. Total length, 17 inches; wing, 12*8.

Young. — White, but with a great deal of grey on the lores,
sides of face, and throat. The upper surface and the wings
spotted with greyish-black ; the bastard-wing, primary-coverts,
and primaries with a black spot at the end ; tail-feathers with a
black sub-terminal band.

Nestling. — White. "Even in this stage," says Professor
Collett, "they may be distinguished from the young of other
species by the strong and hooked claws, particularly on the
hind toe, the somewhat marginated web on the toes, and by
the forward nostrils." The fledgeling is said by Mr. Saunders
to be of a dull or smoke-grey colour.

Range in Great Britain. — Some thirty occurrences of the
Ivory Gull have been recorded from British waters, of which
half have been adult individuals. They have been procured in
England, Ireland, and Scotland, though the greater number,
as might have been expected in a winter visitor from the
north, have occurred in the latter kingdom.

Range outside the British Islands. — " Circumpolar regions, w^ith-
out any break of continuity ; but along those portions of the
coast of Arctic America, where open water is non-existent, the
bird is naturally scarce ; rare also in the Northern Pacific. In
winter, southwards as far as the coast of France and Lake
Leman (once), and New Brunswick, in America" {^Saunders).

IVORY GULL. 83

Ej.Mts. — The flight of the Ivory Gull is described by Colonel
Feilden as being more like that of a Tern than of a Gull, and
he says that it has a shrill note, not unlike that of the Arctic
Tern. Its food consists of marine animals, as well as the
droppings of walruses and seals, and the refuse of the carcases
of the latter animals and whales cast aside by the hunters.
Numbers were observ^ed by Malmgren sitting for hours round
the ice-holes through which the seals came up, looking as if
they were sitting round a council-table ; " a practice which has
doubtless given rise to the curious name used by Martens in
1675 for this Gull, viz., 'Rathsherr' (Councillor), a name
analogous in its derivation to that of ' Biirgermeister ' (Mayor),
used for the Glaucous Gull " {Saunders).

Nest. — Composed of green moss, according to Professor
Collett, this moss forming one-tenth of its mass. "The nest
consists of small splinters of drift-wood, a few feathers, single
stalks and leaves of algae, with one or two particles of lichen.
No trace of straw is to be found ; a couple of pebbles may
possibly have appertained to the under layer of the nest. The
mosses occur in pieces of the size of a walnut or less, and have
evidently been plucked in a fresh state from a dry subsoil,
either on rocks or gravelly places. The feathers, of which a
few were found, are snowy-white, and have probably fallen
from the brooding bird." The nests are placed, as a rule, on
the cliffs, at a height of from fifty to a hundred feet, and are
often quite inaccessible. Those described by Professor Collett
were obtained on the island of Stor-oen, off Spitsbergen, about
sixteen English miles to the east of Cape Smith in 80° 9' N.
Lat., by Captain Joh'^.nnesen.

Eggs. — One, or two, in number. The ground-colour of five
specimens sent to Professor Collett, were almost exactly alike,
viz., a light greyish-brown tint, with a faint admixture of
yellowish-green, such as often appears on the eggs of Larus
caniis, which, however, have often a deeper brown or greener
hue. In structure and gloss all the eggs brought to Professor
Collett resemble those of Z. canus; but the granulations
under the microscope are a little coarser, more uneven, and in
larger numbers ; on the other hand, the granulations are
perceptibly finer than in L, fitscus. The eggs are easily dis-

G 2

84 Allen's naturalist's librarv.

tinguished from those of the Kittiwake by their greater gloss,
the small excrescences are not so crowded together, and are
a little more flattened than they usually are in the last-
mentioned species. Axis, 2-i5-2*4 inches j diam., i'65-i75.

THE KITTIWAKE GULLS. GENUS RISSA.

.\issa, Stephens, in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. part i, p. 1S9 (1826).

Type, i?. iri dactyl a (Linn.).

The chief character which distinguishes the Kittiwakes from
the rest of the Gulls is the rudimentary condition or absence of
the hind toe. The tarsus is much shorter than the middle toe
with its claw, and the tail shews a slight tendency to be forked.

Mr. Howard Saunders admits two species of Kittiwakes, our
own familiar species {R. tridactyld) with dark brown feet and
white under wing-coverts, and R. hrevirostrls^ from the Arctic
Pacific Ocean, with vermilion-coloured feet and grey under
wing-coverts. A third form, R, pollicaris^ with a slightly more
developed hind-toe than in normal R. iridactyla^ and chiefly —
but not exclusively — from the North Pacific, is recognised by
some American naturalists, but is disallowed by Mr. Saunders.

L THE KITTIWAKE GULL. RISSA TRIDACTYLA.

Larus iridady/us, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 224(1766); Scebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. ui. p. 340 (1885).
Rissa tridactyla (Linn.), Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 515 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 447, pis. 607, 608 (1878);

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 187 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 650 (1884); id. ALm. Brit. B.

p. 667 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxiv.

(1893); Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 305 (1896).

Adult Male.— General colour above light slaty-grey, with
narrow white ends to the scapulars ; wing-coverts grey like the
back ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills light slaty-grey,
the inner primaries fringed at the ends, and the secondaries
narrowly tipped with white; the outer primaries grey, white
along the inner webs; first primary black along the outer web,
and also for two inches at the tips ; the second and third
primaries also black at the ends, this black tip decreasing on

KITTIWAKE GULL. 85

the inner primaries, and forming a sub-terminal band on the
fourth and fifth, which liave white tips, the band on the latter
very narrow ; on the sixth the sub-terminal bar is very narrow
and often reduced to a spot, and is occasionally entirely absent ;
rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pure w^hite; head and neck all
round also pure white, extending on to the ui)per mantle ; entire
under surflice of body pure white ; bill yellow, with a greenish
tinge ; tarsi blackish ; toes dark brown. Total length, 16 inches ;
culmen, i-y; wing, 12-4; tail, 475; tarsus, 1-45.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, i6'o inches ;
wing, T3-0.

Adult in Winter. — Differs from the summer plumage in having
the hinder crown and neck washed with the same grey as the
back ; in front of the eye a shade of dusky grey, and behind
the ear-coverts a patch of blackish, which extends in a feeble
degree round the nape, where it nearly forms a collar ; bill more
olive.

Young-. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but with
black mottlings across the hind neck, forming a more or less
complete black band ; the marginal wang-coverts and most of
the lesser wing-coverts black, forming a band down the wing,
which is continued by the black on the outer webs of the inner
secondaries ; the primaries with more black on them than in
the adults, the inner webs with a long white " wedge," but the
black extending along the outer web and for some breadth
along the inner edge of the shaft ; the fifth and sixth primaries
with a sub-terminal bar of black, represented sometimes on the
seventh by a black spot ; tail with a broad black band at the
end, decreasing towards the outermost feathers.

Nestling. — Dark grey, more fulvescent on the nape ; while
below ; toes brown, the webs yellowish.

Mr. Saunders observes that the birds of Bering Sea and the
North Pacific are slightly larger than those of the Atlantic
Ocean, and have a " little more development of the usually
diminutive hind-toe. Sometimes there is a very minute, but
sharply-pointed, nail on each hind-toe, though often on one only.
This development is not confined to examples from the North
Pacific, for it has been found in birds from the British Islands,
Greenland, and the eastern side of North x^mericci,,"

86

Range in. Great Britain, — The Kittiwake is a thoroughly in-
digenous species with us, being found on all our coasts. In
summer it resorts to certain headlands and rocky islands to
breed, and in some places it does so in enormous numbers.
W^ell -known colonies of the Kittiwake are those of Lundy Island,
the Fames, Flamborough, the Bass Rock, and they are especially
numerous in the Orkneys and Shetland Isles. In Ireland, Mr.
Ussher says, the Kittiwake breeds, often in large colonies, on
the precipices of the coasts and islands of Donegal, Antrim,
Dublin, Wexford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, and Sligo.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is found
in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic regions, from the farthest point
yet visited by man to the north of Spitsbergen and up to 8i°
40' in Smith Sound, down to the north-west of France, the
Gulf of St. Lawrence on the Atlantic side of North America,
and the Kuril Islands in the Pacific.

In winter it visits the Mediterranean, and the inland waters
of Europe down to the Caspian, the Canaries, Bermuda, and
both sides of America to about 35° N. Lat. The record
of circumpolar continuity is complete between the North Cape
and Bering Strait, by way of Siberia and the islands to the
north, while in Arctic America it is only defective as regards
the small interval between Prince Albeit Island and Point
Barrow (//. Sannde7's).

Habit'i. — Many descriptions of the colonies of Kittiwakes have
been published in works on British Ornithology. One of the
best accounts of some of the great assemblages of this Gull is
that of the late Dr. Alfred Brehm, in his essay on the
" Bird-Bergs of Lapland." * He writes : — ■

^' Different again is the life and activity on the bergs chosen
as brooding-places by the Kittiwakes. Such a hill is the
promontory Swartholm, high up in the north between the
Laxen and the Porsanger fjords, not far from the North Cape.
I knew^ already how these Gulls appear on their breeding-places.
Faber, with his excellent knovdedge of the birds of the North,
has depicted it, as usual, in a few vivid words :

* "From North Pole to Equator: Studies of Wild Life and Scenes
in many lands." Enc;l:sh Translation, by M. R. Thomson and J. 4.
Thomson. (Blackie & Son : 1896.

KITTIWAKE GULL. 87

**'They hide the sun when they fly, they cover the skerries
when they sit, they drown the thunder of the surf when they
cry, they colour the rocks white where they breed.' I believed
the excellent Faber after I had seen the Eider-holms and Auk-
bergs, and yet I doubted, as every naturalist must, and there-
fore I ardently desired to visit Swartholm for myself. An
amiable Norseman with whom I became friendly, the pilot of
the mail steamer by which I travelled, readily agreed to row me
over to the breeding place, and we approached the promontory
late one evening. At a distance of six or eight nautical miles
we were overtaken by flocks of from thirty to a hundred, some-
times even two hundred, Kittiwakes flying to their nesting-place.
The nearer we approached to Swartholm the more rapid was
the succession of these swarms, and the larger did they become.
At last the promontory became visible, a rocky wall about
eight hundred yards long, pierced by innumerable holes, rising
almost perpendicularly from the sea to a height of from four
hundred and fifty to six hundred feet. It looked grey in the
distance, but with a telescope one could discern innumerable
points and lines. It looked as though a gigantic slate had
been scratched all over with all sorts of marks by a playful
giant child, as though the whole rock bore a wondrous decora-
tion of chains, rings, and stars. From the dark depths of laige
and small cavities there gleamed a brilliant white ; the shelving
ledges stood out in more conspicuous brightness. The brood-
ing Gulls on their nests formed the white pattern, and we
realised the truth of Faber's words, ' they cover the rocks when
they sit.'

" Our boat, as it grated on the rocky shore, startled a number
of the Gulls, and I saw a picture such as I had seen on many
eider-holms and gull-islands. A sliot from my friend's gun
thundered against the precipice. As a raging winter storm
rushes through the air and breaks up the snow-laden clouds till
they fall in flakes, so now it snowed living birds. One saw
neither hill nor sky, nothing but an indescribable confusion. A
thick cloud darkened the whole horizon, justifying the descrip-
tion, ' they hide the sun when they fly.' The north wind blew
violently and the icy sea surged wildly against the foot of the
cliffs, but more wildly itill resounded the shrill cries of the
birds, so that the truth of the last part also of Faber's descrip-

SS alt.en's naturalist's library.

tion was fully proved, 'they drown the thunder of the surf
when they cry.' At length the cloud sank do'vvn upon the sea,
the hitherto dim outlines of Swartholm became distinct again
and a new spectacle enchained our gaze. On the precipices
there seemed to sit quite as many birds as before, and thousands
were still flying up and down. A second shot scared new
flocks, a second time it snowed birds down upon the sea, and
still the hillsides were covered with hundreds of thousands.
But on the sea, as far as the eye could reach, lay Gulls like
light foam-balls rocking up and down with the waves. How
shall I describe the magnificent spectacle? Shall I say that the
sea had woven millions and millions of bright pearls into her
dark wave-robe? Or shall I compare the Gulls to stars, and the
ocean to the dome of heaven ? I know not ; but I know that I
have seen nothing more gorgeous even on the sea. And as if
the charm were not already great enough, the midnight sun,
erewhile clouded over, suddenly shed its rosy light over
promontory, and sea, and birds, lighting up every wave-crest as
if a golden, wide meshed net had been thrown over the water,
and making the rose-tinted dazzling Gulls appear more brilliant
than before. We stood speechless at the sight ! "

Nest. — Seebohm says that the nest of the Kittiwake is better
made than is usual with the Gulls. In some districts the
foundation is made of turf, with the soil adhering, which the
salt spray and the wet feet of the birds soon turn into a kind
of mortar. This foundation is finished off into a nest made of
seaweed, pieces of marine vegetation, and finally lined with
dry grass and sometimes a few feathers. The nests are
generally placed upon ledges on cliffs, but in Alaska they were
found on small islands by Mr. Dall, tlie birds making a simple
depression in the sand.

Egg's. — Two or three in number, very rarely four, according
to Seebohm, who observes that the eggs of the Kittiwake are
not easily compared with those of any other British Gull. Mr.
Robert Read writes to me : — " The eggs of the Kittiwake vary
as much as those of the Black-headed (juH, and they are found
from almost pure white to deep purplish-brown, with still darker
markings. They are, however, never so glossy as the eggs of
the Gulls, resembling more the eggs of the Puffin in texture."

GREAT SKUA. 89

The series in the British Museum varies from the typical
Gull's egg of clay-brown \Yith distinct overlying spots of dark
brown and underlying spots of grey, to bluish-grey or creamy-
buff, with the markings faint or very much emphasized. In
the faintly-spotted eggs, the grey underlying spots are the most
prominent, and in some instances the larger end of the egg is
blotched with black. Axis, 2 -2-2 -3 5 inches; diam., 1-5-1 7.

THE SKUAS. FAMILY STERCORARIID^.

In structure the Skuas differ markedly from the LaridcE,
and their habits more resemble those of Frigate-Birds than
Gulls, though some of the larger species of the last-named
family are robbers by nature. These redeem their character,
however, by other milder traits, whereas the Skuas are among
the most predatory of sea-fowl. They differ from the Gulls
and Terns in osteological characters, having only one notch
in the posterior margin of the sternum, and the bill is
furnished with a very elongated "cere," and is formidably
hooked, while the claws are more like those of a bird of prey
than those of a sea-bird, being strongly curved and very sharp.
Two genera are contained within this Family, both of which
are represented in the British Avi-fauna, and are described
below.

THE GREAT SKUAS. GENUS MEGALESTRIS.

Megalesiri's, Bp. Cat. Parzud. p. 11 (1856).

Types, M. catarHiactes (Linn.).

The members of the genus Megalestrls are four in number,
one of them, M. catarrhactes^ inhabiting the northern ocean,
while another, AT. macconiiickii^ is only known from Victoria
Land in the Antarctic Ocean. M. chiknsis inhabits the
southern coasts of South America, and M. antarciica is found
in the southern ocean from the Falkland Islands eastwards to
New Zealand. The principal points of difference between the
species of Megalestris and Stercor-arius consist in the larger
bulk of the former and the shorter tail, the central feathers of
which do not project more than half an inch beyond the rest,
whereas in SUrcorarius this prolongation of the middle tail-

90 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

feathers is a feature of the genus. The tarsus is a little shorter
than the middle toe and claw.

I. THE GREAT SKUA. MEGALESTRIS CATARRHACTES.

Lams catarrhactes^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 226 (1766).

Lesiris catarrliades, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 479 (1852) ; Lilford,
Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxvi. (1893).

Stercorarius catarrhactes^ Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 457, pi. 609
(1875); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 194 (1883): Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 664(1884); Seebohm, Hist.
Brit. B. iii. p. 346 (18S5) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 671
(1889); id. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. ]). 315 (1S96).

Adult Male. — General colour above dark umber-brown, mottled
with rufous, the feathers being sub-terminally of this colour, and
varied with whitish where the ends of the feathers have worn
pale ; feathers of the neck rather more pointed, and showing
pale straw-coloured shafts ; wing-coverts dark umber-brown,
slightly mottled with white marks near the ends of the
feathers; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills blackish,
the outer primaries with yellowish-white shafts, the first quill
white towards the base of the inner web, the next five white
at the base of both webs, decreasing in extent on the inner
primaries, but forming a conspicuous wing-speculum ; tail
blackish ; crown of head nearly uniform, dark umber-brown
very slightly mottled with reddish-brown centres to the
feathers ; lores and region of the eye dusky umber-brown, the
ear-coverts more rufescent brown ; under surface of body ]Dale
chestnut rufous, varied with ashy grey bases to the feathers,
some of the flank-feathers streaked with white shaft-lines and
whitish at the ends; the under tail-coverts deeper rufous, with
white shaft-streaks; under wing-coverts and axillaries dark
umber-brown, the latter slightly rufous near the ends ; " bill
black, the cere with a greyish tinge ; tarsi and toes black ; iris
dark brown '' (ZT. Saunders). Total length, 2 1 "5 inches ; cul-
men, 2*2 ; wing, i6'o; tail, 6*4; tarsus, 2"8.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in plumage, though Mr.
Saunders is inclined to believe that she is a little larger than
her mate.

GREAT SKUA. 9 1

Adult in Winter. — Mr. Saunders considers that there is scarcely
any difference between the winter and summer plumages, and
in the series in the British Museum there is scarcely any
perceptible difference in colour, except when the plumage is
worn, and then the pointed straw-coloured feathers of the
neck become more prominent.

Young- Birds. — According to Mr. Saunders, these are very
similar' to the adults, but have less tendency to acumination
and striation of the feathers of the neck, and show somewhat
rufous margins to the feathers of the mantle.

Nestling-. — Covered with bufiish-grey down ; more ruddy on
the upper surface.

Rang-e in Great Britain. — The Great Skua is an expiring species
with us. From its predatory habits, it has been marked out for
destruction ; but the desire of collectors to possess its eggs has
probably done more to contribute to its extermination than
any other cause. It is rarely seen on the coasts of England
and Scotland during winter, and its breeding-places are now
confined to the Shetlands, where two small colonies exist on
Unst and Foula, where the birds are protected.

Range outside tlie British Islands. — The breeding-range of the
Great Skua is now restricted to a few localities. It nests in
the Faeroes, in Iceland, and has been said to breed in North
America, on some islands to the north of Hudson Strait. It
occurs occasionally in South Grreenland and off the coast of
Norway ; and wanders in winter as far as the Mediterranean,
and, in North America, to the coast of New England.

HaMts. — The following note is taken from Mr. Saunders's
account of the habits of this species in his edition of Yarrell's
" British Birds " (vol. iii. p. 665) : — •" There is no difficulty in
finding the nests, as the parent birds attack any intruder upon
their domain with fierce and repeated swoops. When handling
the nestling, I found their assaults were unremitting ; first one
bird and then the other wheeling short, and coming down at
full speed, almost skimming the ground. At about fifteen
yards' distance, the strong clawed feet are lowered and held
stiffly out, producing for the moment a very ungainly appear-
ance, and it seems as if the bird would strike the observer full
in the centre of the body, but on quickly raising the hand or

92 allen's naturalist's library.

stick, the bird rises also, the whirr and vil^raticn of its pinions
being distinctly heard and felt. Its ordinary flight is soaring
and stately. On leaving the territory of one pair, the attack
is taken up by another, and so on, for the Great Skuas do
not nest in close proximity. In fearlessness this fine bird is
unrivalled ; it has been seen to beat off the Sea-Eagle, and no
Raven stands a chance against it. For this reason the pro-
prietors of the land protect it ; Colonel Feilden says that in the
Faeroes they also do so on account of the estimation in which
the young are held for food ; but the fishermen shoot the old
birds for the sake of the bill (for the neb-toll), feathers, and
flesh, the latter making excellent fishing-bait. The stomachs
of a pair which were shot were full of the flesh of the Kittiwake,
and the castings consisted of the bones and feathers of that
small Gull. Heysham has noticed an adult female on the
coast of Cumberland, which allowed herself to be seized while
she was in the act of killing a Herring Gull. It also feeds on
fish offal, and I found by the side of a nestling some dis-
gorged but otherwise uninjured herrings of large size."

The late Dr. Saxby has given the following note on the
species in his "Birds of Shetland " : — "The Great Skuas are
usually seen singly or in pairs, except during the early summer,
when they are assembled at the breeding-grounds ; upon these
occasions I have seen considerable numbers about the same
spot, but even then they were chiefly in pairs, except when
they became mixed up by accident. At such times, when the
young are about, the birds become very daring, sometimes even
knocking a man's hat from his head. A dog has no chance
with them, for they buffet him so severely in their rapid swoops
that he soon has to retire discomfited. I once had four of
them sailing in circles close round my head as I stood upon
the crow^n of the highest hill in Unst, Saxaford, and could
almost touch them with my gun, the sound of which, by the
w\ay, did not seem to cause them much alarm ; perhaps they
divined how^ little they had to fear so far as I was concerned.
The female is rather lighter in colour than the male, and is
by far the bolder of the two. During the breeding-season the
Skua will come to such close quarters with an intruder that I
have known a man strike at one with a tether, and entangle
it and bring it to the ground."

POMATORHINE SKUA. 93

In its mode of capturing prey the Great Skua is almost
Accipitrine in its liabits, and lives chiefly upon the toil of the
smaller Gulls, which it follows with fierce pertinacity, and
compels them to disgorge the fish they have captured ; nor, if
one of their number is wounded or in distress, will it hesitate
to pursue and seize it. For this reason it is ahiiost as much
dreade d as a Peregrine or other bird of prey.

Nest. — A hollow in the moss on the upland moors, with
sometimes a bit of grass as a lining.

Eggs. — Two, sometimes only one, laid in May and June.
The ground-colour is dark chocolate-brown or olive-brown, so
dark that the spots do not stand out in bold contrast, the spots
being generally of a reddish-brown colour, sometimes very
faint, and at others inclining to blackish, especially when they
become confluent at the large end of the egg. Axis, 2 -55-2 -9
inches; diam., i •85-1*95.

THE SMALL SKUAS. GENUS STERCORARIUS.

S/e/wrarius, Briss. Orn. vi. p. 149 (1760).

Type, probably S. c?'epidaius (Banks).

The genus Stercorarius comprises a few species of much
smaller size than the members of the genus Megaksiris^ though
they are equally parasitic in their habits, and are armed with
equally fierce talons, and the accipitrine cere of the Great
Skuas. The central tail-feathers are elongated beyond the
others to the extent of three inches at least, and often to a
length of eight or nine inches. The tarsus is distinctly shorter
than the middle toe and its claw. (Cf. Saunders, Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. XXV. p. 314.)

Three species of the smaller Skuas are known, all of them
Arctic in their habitat, ranging south in winter, one of them,
S. pomafor/iiniis, wandering at that season of the year into
the southern oceans.

I. THE POMATORHINE SKUA. STERCORARIUS POMATORHINUS.

Lesiris pomarina, Temm. Man. d'Orn. p. 514 (1815) ; Macgill.
Brit. B. V. p. 487 (.1852); Lilford, Cob Fig. Brit. B. part
xxi. (1892).

94 atxen's naturalist's library.

Stercorarius pomatorhinus^ Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 463, pi. 610
(1877) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 194 (1883) ; Saunders,
ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 668 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.
p. 673 (1889) ; id. Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 323 (1896).

Stcrcorarius poniarinus^ Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii.p. 349 (1885).

Adult Male.— General colour above dark slaty-bro^vn, the
lateral upper tail-coverts with some white bars, mostly con-
cealed ; wing-coveits like the back ; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts, and quills blackish-brown, browner on the inner w^eb,
and with a good deal of white at the base of the latter,
decreasing in extent on the inner primaries ; tail blackish-
brown ; crown of head black, forming a cap, the black
extending over the lores, feathers below the eye and fore part
of cheeks ; the feathers of the occiput acuminate like those of
the hind neck, which is straw-yellow like the sides of the face
and sides of the neck; the hind-neck slaty-brown like the
back, but mottled with white bars ; throat straw-yellow like the
sides of the neck, the chin w^iiter; remainder of under surface
of body white, the lower throat and fore-neck mottled thickly
wath black bars and edgings to the feathers, the sides of the
body and flanks also mottled in the same way ; the lower
abdomen and under tail-coverts nearly uniform slaty-brow^n,
only slightly mottled with white ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries uniform slaty-brown, the lower primary-coverts lighter
slate-grey ; bill horn-brown ; tarsi and toes reddish-brown.
Total length, 21 inches; culmen, 17; wing, i4'6 ; tail, 4*9 ;
centre tail-feathers, 7 '5; tarsus, 2-1.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 20-5
inches ; wing, 14*0.

Adult in Winter. — Similar to the summer plumage, but for
some years after the attainment of adult — though not mature
— plumage, there is a tendency, after the autumnal moult, to
show striated feathers on the flanks, as well as on the upper and
under tail-coverts. (Saunders, Cat. B. xxv. p. 326.)

The pectoral band is wider in immature birds, the yellow
on the neck is not so evident, and the flanks are generally
streaked. There are more bars on the under surface of the
body, and the upper and under tail-coverts, as well as the
under wing coverts, are barred or mottled with black and

fOMATORHINE SKUA. 95

\vliite ; the central tail feathers rarely project for more than two
inches. Like other members of the genus Stercorarius^ the
Pomatorhine Skua has a melanistic phase, which is generally
considered to occur in old birds only, because of the yellow
which is seen on the neck. Mr. Saunders, however, doubts
whether any of these dark specimens are really old birds, and
he quotes an instance of a specimen kept alive for some years
by the late Mr. Booth, which gradually became whiter and
whiter on the lower parts of the body.

Young-. — Sooty-brown above, the head and neck uniform,
but the mantle and back mottled with rufous edgings to the
feathers ; wing-coverts obscurely edged with rufous, the greater
coverts and scapulars somewhat more plainly margined \
upper tail- coverts banded with sooty-brown and white or sandy-
buff; tail-feathers sooty-brown, slightly edged with rufous at
the tips ; sides of face and throat uniform sooty-brown ; under
surface of body dull ashy-brown, with concealed whitish bars ;
the abdomen paler and crossed with dusky bars ; the under tail-
coverts banded with dusky-brown and buffy-white; sides of
body darker than the breast ; under wing-coverts and axillaries
banded w^ith blackish-brown and white ; lower primary-coverts
white, with dusky bands at the ends ; quills blackish below,
with a great deal of white towards the base of the inner web ;
" bill brown, with a greenish tinge ; tarsus often blue or grey
in patches ; bases of the toes yellowish " {H. Sainiders).

Characters. — The larger size and darker feet, with the brow^n
hind-toe distinguish young birds of the Pomatorhine Skua from
the young of the other two species of Siercorarius. The adult
bird is known by its greater dimensions, the wing being over
fourteen inches, and by the greater breadth of the central tail-
feathers, which are rounded at the ends, and project four
inches beyond the others, being twisted vertically. (Cf.
Saunders, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 322).

Range in Great Britain. — A migrant to the seas of the British
Islands, sometimes occurring in large numbers, as in 1879 and
1880. Many individuals remain on our southern coasts during
some winters, and specimens have been obtained inland after
severe gales. On the northward migration in spring, the
species is seldom observed.

90 Allen's naturallst*s library.

Range outside the British Islands. — During the breeding seasori
the Pomatorhine Skua is found in the arctic tundra of both
hemispheres, and in winter the species wanders into the
southern oceans, having been obtained in Northern AustraUa,
Western and South-western Africa, and on the coast of Peru.

Habits. — Mr. E. W. Nelson, who met with the present species
in Alaska, writes : "They are clumsy and cowardly birds as
compared with their smaller relatives. When one of this
species happen to cross the path of the smaller species, the
latter almost invariably gives chase, and beats its clumsy
antagonist off the field by repeatedly darting down from above.
This attack embarrasses the large bird so much that it flinches
and dives, and often alights and watches an opportunity to
escape from its nimble assailant. One that was driven to alight
in the river thrust its head under water at every swoop of its
enemy, and exhibited the most ludicrous terror. When on the
wing they usually ward off an attack from one side by a half-
closed wing, and if from above, both wings are raised, forming
an arched shield above the back. This large bird has a low,
harsh, chattering cry when feeding with its companions. The
peculiar twist of the long tail-feathers of this species renders it
conspicuous and identifiable at almost any distance."

Mr. II. J. Pearson noticed the Pomatorhine Skua off Novaya
Zemlya, but did not succeed in finding a nest. He thinks
that many of them do not breed in bad seasons, and adds :
" If this idea should prove to be a fact, it may be a provision
of nature to prevent the Skuas from becoming too numerous.
They are well able to defend their eggs and young from the
birds of prey found in the same countries and equally capable
of taking care of themselves, so that the only foes they need
fear are old age and deficiency of food."

Nest. — A mere depression in the moss.

Eggs. — Two in number. Similar to those of the Great Skua,
but much smaller, and not so dark in colour, as a rule. The
groundcolour is a very deep olive or clay-brown, the spots
being reddish brown, or more often blackish brown, and
having a tendency to become confluent round the larger end.
Sometimes the overlying markings are very faint and the grey

underlying spots are small and indistinct. Axis, 2* 2 5-2-5
inches; diam., 1-85-1 75.

II. Richardson's skua, stercorarius crepidatus.

Lams crepidatus, Banks, in Cook's Voy. Hawksworth's ed. ii.

P- 15 (1773)-
Lestrts richardsoni, Swains. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 492 (1852) ;

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxi. (1896).
Stercorarius crepidatus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 471, pis.

611, 612, fig. 2 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 195

(1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 674 (1884) ;

id. Man. Brit. B. p. 675 (1889).
Stercorarius richardsoni, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 353

(1885).

{Plate cm.)

Adult Male (Pale Form). — General colour above dark slaty-
brown, the wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts and primaries blackish, with yellowish-white shafts,
light ashy-brown on the inner web, with a little white
at the base of both webs ; tail slaty-brown, blacker towards
the end of the feathers, the two centre feathers much
elongated ; crown of head darker slaty-brown, forming a cap,
with a line of white at the base of the forehead ; lores and
feathers under the eye slaty-brown, blacker in front of the
eye ; remainder of sides of face and sides of neck white, as
well as a collar round the hind neck, with a tinge of
straw-yellow ; the hind neck and upper mantle light ashy-
brown, with white shaft-lines ; under surface of body white,
with a shade of ashy-brown on the fore-neck, darker and more
distinct on the sides of the breast and sides of body, and
again darker on the under tail-coverts, with white shafts and
bases to the latter feathers ; under wing-coverts and axillaries
dark slaty-brown ; " bill horn-colour ; tarsi bluish in life,
drying olivaceous ; toes black " {H. Saunders). Total length,
20 inches; culmen, 1-55; wing, 12-3; tail, 5*5 ; long centre
feathers, 7*85; tarsus, 1-75.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male. Total length, 19-3
inches; wing, 12-8.

IS "

98 Allen's naturallst's library.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Mr. Saunders describes this phase of
plumage as being similar to that of 6". pomatorJiinus^ the winter
dress resembling that of summer, but having a tendency to
show striations upon the under parts, and especially on the
flanks, while the yellow on the neck is less pronounced.

Dark Form. — On the melanistic birds of the present species
Mr. Saunders gives the foUow^ing note: — "The dark-breasted
form is rare to the northwards of lat. 70°, beyond which the
white-breasted one is the representative form ; but southward,
both races are found. The colour has no relation to sex,
and dark and light birds are constantly to be found paired.
The offspring of this union, when adult, is intermediate in
character, having a dusky-whitish throat, more or less of an
ash-brown band across the breast, and a considerable amount
of brown on the flanks. Individuals irregularly spotted with
white are not very rare."

Young. — Mr. Saunders describes the offspring of two white-
breasted birds as pale cinnamon-brown on the head and under
parts, with dark streaks and bars ; the feathers of the upper
parts umber-brown, with rufous edges. The offspring of two
dark birds is much darker, with greyer tips to the feathers ;
while the offspring of one white-breasted bird and one sooty-
bird is intermediate, as might be expected. The tarsi and
bases of the toes are yellowish, and the front portion of the
toes is black.

Immature birds are streaked and mottled with various
shades of brown on the upper surfaces ; mantle chiefly umber;
upper tail-coverts barred with dark brown, white, and rufous ;
under surface more or less barred with brown on a paler
ground {Saunders).

Nestling. — Sooty-brown above, paler on the under surface,
the nestlings of dark parents being more dusky than those of
the white-breasted ones.

Charactera, — The adult of Richardson's Skua is distinguished
from that of the Pomatorhine Skua by its smaller size, the
wing being less than fourteen inches, and by its long and
tapering central tail-feathers, which often project three inches
beyond the others.

kiCHARDSON S SKUA. 99

From 6*. parasiticus, the present species is distinguished by
its comparatively longer bill and by the white shafts to the
primaries, whereas S. parasiticus has only the two outer prima-
ries white-shafted. The young birds can be told from young
S. poniatorhinus by their smaller size, but it is difficult to
distinguish the young of S. crepidatus and S. parasiticus.

Range in Great Britain. — Richardson's Skua breeds in the
Shetland and Orkney Islands, as well as in Sutherland and
Caithness, whilst it is also found nesting in the Hebrides.
During migration it occurs on both the Scottish coasts, but
more frequently occurs on the east coast of England than on
the west coast. It also visits Ireland at intervals.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species breeds
throughout the Arctic and sub- Arctic regions of both hemi-
spheres, its Scottish habitat constituting its southern limit. In
winter Richardson's Skua extends its range to the southern
oceans, having been recorded from the Cape of Good Hope,
the shores of the Persian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and as far
as Australia and New Zealand, while it has also been noted
from as far south as Rio de Janeiro in South America.

HaMts. — The habits of all the Skuas, or Jaegers, as they are
called by American naturalists, are very much the same. The
follow^ing account of Richardson's Skua on the island of
Kolguev has been published by Mr. A. Trevor-Battye : —

" Although greatly dependent when at sea upon the labours
of other Gulls, the breeding pairs are as persistent robbers of
eggs as Rooks in a dry season, and may be constantly seen
quartering the tundra for eggs or young. I should be inclined
to estimate that of breeding birds on Kolguev there is about
one pair to every seven square miles of country. We never
found a colony, nor even two pairs together. All those I saw
belonged to the light-coloured race. On June 29 we took
eggs about incubated. A nest containing one egg (July 7),
was a simple depression in dry grass : the egg had a remarkable
escape. We were driving along — four sleighs, which meant
eighteen reindeer — when I called out to my companion
Hyland, who was in front, to stop ; for, some thirty yards or
so away, a pair of Skuas were behaving as though they had a
nest. However, we could make nothing of it, and had just

II 2

lOO ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRAR\»

taken our seats again to start off, when, as I stooped down to
disengage the hind leg of one of my deer, lo and behold, there
was a nest under my sleigh. The whole train of sleighs had
passed over this nest, and yet the single egg was not broken.
On August 7 w^e picked up a young Skua and brought it back
alive. This bird was almost full-grown, and had well-developed
primaries. Its parents showed no anxiety about it. It was
beside a lake, and as we approached, ran and hid in some
grasses. It bit viciously, but made no noise."

" I never in any single instance knew an Arctic Skua to stoop
at a visitor near its nest. On the contrary, an intrusion was met
by every wile of allurement. It was the old game of ' hot or
cold ; ' until at last, when you stood close to the nest, both the
birds were reduced to a state of helplessness. At such a time
they behaved exactly alike. Sitting on their tails, either in the
water or on the grass, and beating forwards with their wings,
they mewed all the time like cats."

I have taken the following notes from Mr. E. W. Nelson's
"Report on Collections from Alaska ":—" During summer
these Jaegers show a much greater preference for marshes and
the low^ barren grounds so common in the north than they do
for the vicinity of the sea-coast. At the Yukon mouth and
near Saint Michael's they arrive with the first open water, from
the loth to the 15th of May. The snow still lies in heavy
drifts on most of the open country, but the Jaegers take pos-
session and feed upon the Shrew-mice and Lemmings which
are common on this ground. By the last of May they are
very common, and twenty or thirty may be seen in a day's
hunt.

'' The young are on the wing by the end of July and early
August. The last birds move southward, or keep out to sea,
after the 20th of September. On cloudy days, or in the dusky
twilight, these birds have a habit of uttering loud wailing cries,
interspersed with harsh shrieks, which are among the most
peculiar notes heard in the northern breeding-grounds. At all
times the Jaegers are given to wandering, and one is likely to
find them almost anywhere along the coast. They are not
infrequently seen harrying Terns or Gulls to make them disgorge
fish just caught. If successful, they dart down, and rising
under the falling morsel catch it in their capacious mouth.

BUFFON S SKUA. lOI

This robbery is often performed by two birds in unison, but
whether the birds alternate in disposing of the spoil or not
could not be learned. When a Jaeger is wounded, others of
its kind show much concern, and I have secured several birds
in succession which were drawn within range by the cries and
struggles of their companions. The habits in general of this
and the following species are extremely similar along the coast
region of Bering Sea, and both breed abundantly on all that
broad belt of low barren plains and marshy country bordering
the coast along the entire northern end of the continent. When
surprised near its nest it creeps along the ground with flapping
wings to decoy away the intruder."

Nest. — As a rule, a depression in the moss, but Mr. Trevor-
Battye found one in Kolguev which was among dead water-
grass in a bog, and was more than a mere depression, for
grasses had been walled into the lining.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour dark chocolate-
brown varying to light clay - colour, the darker eggs more
strongly marked with deep brown or blackish, the spots being
distributed over the greater part of the egg, and the grey under-
lying markings very indistinct. The pale eggs have the spots
collected round the larger end, the rest of the egg being rather
free from markings. Axis, 2-3-2-55 inches; diam. i "5-1 -65.

III. buffon's skua. stercorarius parasiticus.

Larus parasiticus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 226 (1766).
Lesfris parasitica, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 503 (1852).
Stercorarius parasiticus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 481, pi. 612,

fig. I (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 195 (1883);

Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 681 (1884); id.

Man. Brit. B. p. 677 (1889).
Stercorarius bujfoiii, Boie ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 358

(1885).
Lestris parasiticus, Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxu.

(I'

Adult Male. — General colour above slaty-grey, the wing-coverts
and scapulars like the back ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts and

102 Allen's naturalist's library.

quills blackish, the latter browner on the inner web ; the fust
two primaries with white shafts ; the innermost secondaries
grey like the back ; tail-feathers slaty-grey, blackish towards
the ends ; crown of head black, forming a cap ; the lores and
sides of face up to the fore-part of the eye blackish, as also the
fore-part of the cheeks at the base of the lower mandible ; rest
of the sides of the face and a collar round the hind neck white,
washed with ochreous-buff ; throat and fore-neck and chest
white, with more or less of an ochreous tinge ; remainder of
under surface of body from the chest downwards pale slaty-
grey, including the under tail-coverts, under wing-coverts, and
axillaries ; " bill horn-colour ; tarsi bluish in life, drying oliva-
ceous ; toes h\^ck'' {H. Saunders). Total length, 21 inches;
culmen, i-i ; wing, ii'S; tail, 4-6 ; centre tail-feathers, 11*5 ;
tarsus, 1-65.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male in colour, but with slightly
shorter central tail-feathers.

Adult in Winter Plumage.— Similar to the summer plumage, but
as in the other species, there is, according to Mr. Saunders, a
tendency, after the autumnal moult, to show striated feathers
on the flanks, and on the upper and under tail-coverts.

Immature Birds. — Differ from the adults in having very little
yellow on the sides of the neck, and in having the under parts
and upper tail-coverts barred with varying degrees of ash-brown.
The young are ash-brown above, the head darkest, the feathers
of the mantle and tail-coverts merely tipped with buft', but
without any rufous tint, the under parts being dull greyish-
white, barred with ash-brown (Saunders).

Nestling. — Greyish-brown above and below, much paler and
greyer than in S. crepidatus.

Characters. — Mr. Saunders points out that in this species
there is always a "very characteristic grey tint in all its ])hases."
The adult bird is certainly lighter grey than S. crepidaius^ from
which S. parasiticus also differs in its smaller size, comparatively
shorter bill, and long centre tail-feathers, which sometimes
project to a length of nine inches. Only the two outer
primaries have white shafts.

BUFFON S SKUA. I03

Range in Great Britain. — An irregular migrant to our waters,
principally occurring on the east coasts, more rarely in the
Channel and on the west coasts. It has never occurred in
Scotland, according to Mr. Saunders, in any numbers, during
the cold season, and in Ireland it has been noticed in autumn,
and, sparingly, in spring.

Rang-e outside the British Islands. — " High circumpolar regions,
seldom breeding south of the Arctic Circle, unless on lofty
fells ; in autumn and winter migrating southwards as far as the
Straits of Gibraltar, as well as to about 40^^ N. lat. on the
Atlantic side of America, and a little farther on the Pacific
side " {Saii/iders).

Habits. — For a good account of the habits of Buffon's Skua
we are indebted to Mr. E. VV. Nelson's ''Report," a work which I
have had much pleasure in introducing to English readers in the
course of the present work. Pie writes : — " This graceful and
handsome bird is the most common of the Jaegers on the
Alaskan coast and vicinity, and especially about Saint Michael's.
They arrive in this vicinity about the 12th or 15th of May, but are
not numerous until ten days or more later. They are first found
quartering the marshes in small parties of from two to six or
eight. They have a shrill pJicu-pheu-phcu-phcu, uttered w^hile
they are flying, and while the birds are quarrelling or pursuing
one another the ordinary note is often follow^ed by a harsh qua.
At another time they have a rattling kr-r-r-r, kr~7'-r-r^ ki^-r-r-i-,
kri-kri-kri-h'i, the latter syllables shrill and querulous, and
sometimes followed by the long-drawn pJicu-pJieu-phcu in the
same tone. They appear to be much more playful than the
other Jaegers, and parties of six or eight may be seen pursuing
one another back and forth over the marsh. The long, slender
tail-feathers and extreme grace on the wing of those birds render
them very much like- the Swallow-tailed Kite. The mating
occurs with a great amount of noisy demonstration on the part
of several rivals, but once paired, the birds keep by themselves,
and early in June deposit their eggs in a depression on the
mossy top of some knoll upon rising ground.

"In one instance, on June 16, while I was securing the eggs
of a MacrorhafHphus, a pair of these Jaegers kept circling
about, uttering harsh screams and darting down within a few

I04 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIERARY.

feet. As I approached the spot where the Snipe's eggs lay, 1
noticed those birds on a knoll just beyond, but had paid no
attention ; but as the birds kept leaving me to hover over the
knoll and then return to the attack, I examined the spot, and
there, in a cup- shaped depression in the moss, lay two dark
greenish eggs marked with an abundance of spots. During
the breeding season these birds and the preceding species have
a cunning habit of tolling one away from their nests by dragging
themselves along the ground and feigning the greatest suffering.
They roll among the tussocks, beat their wings, stagger from
side to side, and seem to be unable to fly, but they manage to
increase the distance from their starting point at a very respect-
able rate, and ere long suddenly launch forth on the wing.

" After a successful hunt, the Jaegers of this and the last
species alight upon some prominent knoll and sun themselves,
their white breasts showing for a long distance. They are very
curious at times, and I have called them within gunshot on
several occasions by tossing some conspicuous object into the
air as the birds were passing. On one occasion I saw a Jaeger
swoop down at a Duck paddling quietly on the surface of a
pond, and the latter went flapping away in mortal terror, w^hile
the Jaeger passed on, probably highly pleased at giving the
Duck such a fright.

" Their taste is omnivorous, and they harry the marshes for
Mice and Lemmings, and feast upon the dead fish and other
animal matter cast up by the sea, or search the hillsides for
berries. The arrival of a vessel in their neighbourhood calls
them about to secure the offal thrown overboard. The Eskimo
say that they eat just what men like, hence the name given
them, derived from the word 'yuk,* or ' man.'

" The swiftness and dexterity with w^iich they pursue Gulls
and force them to disgorge is a beautiful sight to witness ; and
while either of the small Terns or Gulls can drive the Jaeger
from the vicinity of their nest, the latter robs them of their
prey at pleasure. While I was camping at the Yukon mouth a pair
of these birds made their haunt in the vicinity of my tent and fed
upon the offal thrown upon the ice a few yards from the door.
They soon became very familiar, and were always on hand,
hovering close overhead when we came in from a hunt. They
would stand about within a few yards and watch us with wistful

AUKS. T05

eyes, ready to pounce upon any morsel tossed them ; and if a
fragment was held up in the hand, they would hover a few feet
over it, although not daring to come closer. They also soon
became used to our shooting, and scarcely noticed it even
when near by. Unfortunately our companionship lasted only
about ten days, when I broke camp, and so lost the opportunity
of gaining their complete confidence. After the first few days
they seemed to appropriate the camp, and made a fierce attack
upon any others of their kind that chanced to come near."

Nest. — A cup-shaped depression in the moss.

Eggs. — Two in number. Smaller than those of S. crepidaUis,
rather paler in tint, and more olive, some being light clay-brown.
Two in the Seebohm collection in the British Museum are light
bluish-green, very sparsely marked, and all the lighter-coloured
eggs appear to be less plentifully spotted. Axis, 2 -0-2 -2 inches;
diam. i'5-i-6.

THE AUKS. SUB ORDER ALCiE.

The Auks, though outwardly so different from the Gulls, and
possessing features in their economy so dissimilar to the latter
birds, have nevertheless many characters in common with
them, such as the schizognathous palate, the schizorhinal
nostrils, the absence of basipterygoid processes, the furcation
of the spinal feather-track on the upper back, and the webbed
feet. Externally they differ from the Gulls in their squat
appearance, their extraordinary diving powers, their close-set
plumage, and in the manner of nidification and the shape of
the eggs. They also have a double moult in the year.

The Auks are all birds of the northern hemisphere, breeding
in the arctic and sub-arctic regions. They wander south in
winter, but are never found to the south of the equator. Some
of them, such as the Puffins, have ornamental plumage in the
shape of brightly-coloured crests and tufts of feathers on the
sides of the head, as well as an ornamental colour on the bills,
which is shed after the breeding season, just as other birds
moult their feathers,

lo6 ATJ.E\'S naturalist's LIBRARY.

'IIIE TRUE RAZOR-BILLS. GENUS ALCA.

A lea, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 210 (1766).

Type, A. tarda, Linn.

The Razor-bills belong to the group of Auks which have a
sulcated or grooved bill and exposed nostrils, the latter not
being encroached upon by the feathering of the base of the
bill, as is the case with many genera of the family. In the
case of the Razor-bills the nostrils are exposed, and situated at
the end of a triangular base on the mandible, but they are not
separated by a ridge from the feathers which encroach on the
base of the bill, though there is a swollen ridge at the base of
the lower mandible, anterior to the nostril. The Great Auk is
merely a gigantic form of Razor-bill, with a heavier body and
feebler wings than its more active congener, AIca to?'da, so
that while the latter survives to the present day in thousands,
the Giant Razor-bill, as the "Great Auk" ought more properly
to be called, has succumbed to circumstances and become
extinct.

In addition to the characters given above, the Razor-bills
differ from the Great Auk {inft-a, p. iii) in the possession of
fully developed wings, which reach nearly to the end of the
tail. They have also well-marked grooves on the bill.

The typical species, A. to7'da, is the only representative of
the genus at the present day.

I. THE RAZOR-BILL. ALCA TORDA.

Aha iorda, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 210 (1766); Dresser, B.

Eur. viii. p. 557, pi. 619 (1877); B. O. U. List. Brit. B.

p. 205 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 55

(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 375 (1885);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 679 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xii. (1890).
Uta??ianta torda^ Linn. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 346 (1852).

{Plate CIV.)

Nestling. — Covered wn'th dense sandy-brown down, mottled
with black bases to the feathers ; the crown of the head and
sides of face and neck more hoary-grey ; cheeks and throat

PLATE CIV.

RAZOR-BILL.

RAZOR-BILL. loy

blackish ; lower throat and rest of under surface of body dull
whitish ; sides of body like the back.

The first plumage, after the downy stage, is black above,
including the sides of the face and sides of neck, the black
extending across the lower throat ; under surface of body
white, the lower flanks with dusky tips ; along the upper edge
of the lores is a very narrow line of white ; the bill is black,
very narrow, and shows a white "nail" on the end.

Adult Male. — General colour above black, including the
wings and tail, the secondaries tipped with white, form-
ing a band ; entire sides of face and sides of neck velvety-
brown, occupying the upper part of the throat, but ex-
tending in a well-defined line down the sides of the latter
across to the sides of the upper breast, leaving the white
of the lower throat and fore-neck to end in a blunt triangle ;
entire under surface from the lower throat downwards, pure
white, the fore-part of the tibia brown ; under wing-coverts
and axillaries white; a distinct line of white running from the
base of the culmen along the upper lores to the middle of the
eye ; " bill black, with a curved transverse white line in the
centre on each side ; legs, feet, and claws brownish black ; iris
hazel" {Seelwhm). Total length, 15 inches; culmen, 1*4;
wing, 7-3; tail, 3-0; tarsus, 1-2; middle toe and claw, i-8.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 16 inches ;
wing, 7-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage as
regards the upper surface, but having no blackish brown on the
throat ; the feathers of the lores dark brown, extending back-
wards in a band below the eye across the ear-coverts ; area
behind the eye white, extending over the sides of the neck, and
including the whole of the cheeks and the entire throat and
under surface of the body ; the white line along the upper edge
of the lores very indistinct, but still traceable ; the bill with
ridges and the transverse white line.

Young in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the adult in winter
plumage, but always to be distinguished by its smaller and
narrower bill without vertical ridges; the white loral line is
either obsolete or scarcely traceable.

loS Allen's naturallst's library.

Seebohm says tliat, after the first spring moult, the adult
nuptial plumage is almost completely assumed, but the bill,
although presenting the white transverse stripe, has only two,
instead of the three, transverse grooves which characterise the
old bird.

Range in Great Britain. — An inhabitant of the rocky coasts,
nesting in such locahties from Cornwall to the Shetlands. It
also breeds on the Channel Islands. With regard to Ireland,
Mr. Ussher remarks that it "breeds usually in great numbers
on cliffs off the coasts and islands of Donegal, Antrim, Dublin,
Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo, and
Sligo." In winter it is found in the British seas, and is occa-
sionally driven far inland during stormy weather.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Razor-bill is an inhabi-
tant of the Atlantic Ocean, occurring on the shores of North
America on the Atlantic, but not on the Pacific, shores. It
breeds in Norway up to 69° N. Lat., as well as in the Faeroes
and Iceland, probably in Jan Mayen Island, but not, so far as is
known, in Spitsbergen. Its most southern breeding range,
according to Saunders, is the coast of Brittany ; though in
winter it is seen in the Mediterranean, and even as far as the
Canaries. It is found in Eastern North America, breeding in
Greenland up to about 70^ N. Lat., and on the coasts of
Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, wintering some-
what to the south of these countries, when it occurs off the
New England coast.

Habits. — Very similar to those of the Puffin and Guillemot,
the species being equally gregarious both in summer and
winter. It is met with on the Fame Islands, where, however, it
is not very plentiful. My friend, the late Henry Seebohm, has
written some interesting accounts of the birds observed by
him in the last-named islands, and I quote the following from
his " History of British Birds " : —

" Like the Guillemot and the Puffin, the Razor-bill is a resi-
dent in the British seas, but appears to be less numerous in
winter than in summer, because it is spread over a much wider
area, and lives for the most part out at sea. In its habits it
very closely resembles the Guillemot, but is easily distinguished
from that bird, even at a considerable distance, by its deeper

RAZOR-BILL.

f09

bill and conspicuous stripe from its base to the eye. It is
gregarious at all times of the year, and in some places literally
swarms. In summer it comes to the rocky headlands and
wild precipitous islets to rear its young ; but from its partiality
for clefts in the rocks rather than ledges, it is almost absent
from many places where the Guillemot breeds in great abun-
dance, as, for instance, the ' Pinnacles ' in the Fame Islands.
The Razor-bill is most at home in the water, where it vies
even with the fish in activity and rapidity of movement. It
floats on the heaving waves, light and buoyant as a cork, sitting
well out of the water, its head and neck raised high above its
back, very similar to a Duck or a Diver. It swims with ease,
paddling at times very quickly, and often indulges in a frolic
in the sea, splashing about with its wings, chasing its com-
panions, and being chased by them in turn. It often sleeps on
the water, tossed about seemingly at the mercy of the waves,
but quite safe even in the roughest water. It is by no means
a shy bird, and frequently allows a boat or a vessel to approach
it within a few yards ere it takes wing or dives. Like the
Guillemot and the Puffin, it is an expert diver, vanishing from
view with great rapidity, leaving tiny air-bubbles to mark the
place of its descent. It dives for a considerable distance
below the surface, either in pursuit of a small fish or in search
of crustaceans and molluscs hiding in tlie crevices of the rocks
and amongst the seaweed at the bottom. The Razor-bill, in
spite of its narrow and comparatively small wings, flies well,
but does not rise very easily from the water, generally splash-
ing along for a iew yards ere it gets well into the air. It never
appears to fly about like the Puffin, and when it leaves its
perch on the rocks generally darts headlong down into the sea,
and, when leaving the water, soon makes for the rocks again.
The flight is performed by rapid and incessant beatings of the
wings. The Razor-bill is a clumsy object on the land, and
very rarely attempts to walk far, progressing in a hobbling
kind of way. This bird often goes long distances to feed, and
then its flight can be seen to perfection, as the little troop of
birds, usually in single file, pass rapidly along just above the
surface of the waves.

"The food of the Razor-bill is composed principally of small
fish, especially of the fry of the herring and the coal-fish ; these

iio At.TF.N's jnaturalist's library.

are often pursued under the water with as much dexterity as
the Swallow chases an insect in the air. The Razor-bill flies
under the water aided by its webbed feet ; it is capable of
remaining under the surface for a long time, and when sub-
merged not only catches fish, but searches for crustaceans,
molluscs, &c. The note of this bird, which is rarely heard,
may be described as a low croaking sound."

Nest. — None. The Razor-bill places its eggs on the rocks,
but always, if possible, in some niche or crevice, sometimes
far out of reach, and seldom in the open, though Saunders
once saw an old Cormorant's nest appropriated by a Razor-bill.
Both male and female incubate.

'Egg. — One only, differing in shape from that of the Guille-
mot, and the extraordinary variation in colour is not so marked
as in the eggs of the latter bird. A reliable test for their identifi-
cation consists in the fact that, when the egg of the Razorbill
is held up against the light, and looked at through the blowing-
hole, the inside always appears green, whereas the inside of a
Guillemot's egg generally appears to be yellowish-green, though
greenish eggs of the latter bird have often a pervading tint of
green reflected through by the external colour of the egg. Mr.
Robert Read writes : — " The Razor-l^ill lays its eggs on the bare
rock, without any sign of a nest, like the Guillemot. The eggs
are, however, usually placed in more sheltered positions than
those of the latter bird, such as in a corner or hollow among the
rocks, or under a projecting boulder. Some of the eggs with
the red ground-colour are very handsome, but I have found
them mingled with those with white and every intermediate
shade of ground-colour on the same rocks. Some varieties of
the Razor-bill's eggs are not easy to distinguish from those of
the Osi)rey.''

THE GREAT AUKS. GENUS PLAUTUS.

Plautiis, Briinn. Zool. Fund., p. 78 (1872).

Type P. impennis (Linn.).

Only a single species of the genus Plmitus is known. Once

plentiful within a limited latitude, it has become extinct within

the present century, and, in spite of hopes that some indi-

GREAT AUl<t. til

Viduals might yet survive, year after year passes by without
the discovery of a living specimen. That the species was extin-
guished by the agency of man there can be httle doubt. Pro-
fessor Alfred Newton writes in his " Dictionary of Birds " : —
" In Iceland there is the testimony of a score of witnesses,
taken down from their lips by one of the most careful naturalists
who ever lived, the late John Wolley, that the latest survivors
of the species were caught and killed by expeditions expressly
organised wdth the view of supplying the demands of caterers
to the various museums of Europe. In like manner the fact is
incontestable that its breeding-stations in the western part of
the Atlantic were for three centuries regularly visited and
devastated with the combined objects of furnishing food or bait
to the fishermen from very early days ; and its final extinction,
foretold in 1792 by Cartwright ('Labrador,' iii. p. 55), was
due, according to Sir Richard Bonnycastle {' Newfoundland,
in 1842,' i. p. 232) to 'the ruthless trade in its eggs and skin.'
No doubt that one of the chief stations of the species in Ice-
landic waters disappeared through volcanic action —

'A land, of old upheaven from the abyss
By fire, to sink into the abyss again.'

and that the destruction of the old Geirfuglaske'r drove some,
at least, of the birds which frequented it to a rock nearer the
mainland, when they were exposed to danger from which, in
their former abode, they had been comparatively free ; yet, on
this rock (Eldey = fire-island) they were 'specially hunted
down ' whenever opportunity offered, until the stock there was
wholly extirpated in 1844, and whether any remained else-
where must be deemed most doubtful."

The Great Auk was a gigantic flightless Razor-bill, with such
small wings — only about the size of the ordinary Razor-bills —
that it was unable to fly. Bullock, who saw a specimen alive,
says that it was " wholly incapable of flight, but so expert a
diver that every effort to shoot it was ineffectual. '^

I. THE GREAT AUK. PLAUTUS IMPENNIS.

A/ca impennis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 210 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. V. p. 359 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 563,

1 12 Allen's naturalist's library.

pi. 620 (1880); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 206 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 61 (1884); See-
bohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 371 (1885); Saunders, Man.
Brit. B. p. 681 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xviii.
(1891).

{Plate CV.)

Adult in Summer Plumage. — General colour above glossy black ;
wings like the back ; quills brownish black, the secondaries
tipped with white, forming a white bar ; tail also black ; head
and neck glossy black, like the back ; the throat rather more
brownish black ; under surface white, sharply defined from the
black of the back, ascending on to the throat and forming a
triangular patch ; sides of body dove-grey ; a large white patch
on each side of the head in front of the eye. Total length,
25*0 inches; culmen, y6 ; wing, 6"o; tail, 3-8 ; tarsus, i-8.

Winter Plumage. — As in the Razor-bill, the throat is white in
winter.

Range in Great Britain. — The Great Auk used to breed in
S. Kilda, but even by the middle of the last century the birds
had become very irregular in their visits.* A male and
female were killed at Papa Westray, one of the Orkneys, in
181 2. The male bird of this pair is now in the British Museum.
In August of 1 82 1 or 1822, Fleming records a specimen sent
to him from S. Kilda, and, according to the researches of
Mr. Henry Evans, a bird of this species was captured in the
same group of islands about the year 1840. That the Great
Auk formerly had a more extended range in ancient times
has been proved by the remains which have been found in
Caithness and Argyll, and even as far south as some old sea-
caves in Durham (cf. Saunders, Man. p. 682). Mr. Barrett-
Hamilton has collected the evidence of the existence of
Plautus i?npe?i?iis in Ireland, where Mr. W. J. Knowles has
found remains of the species on the coast of Antrim, along
wdth those of the horse, dog, or wolf, "in conjunction with
human remains believed to be those of the earliest Neolithic

* For an epitome of the range and habits of the Great Auk, I am
indebted to a pamphlet written by Mr. Thomas Parkin, and to Mr.
Howard Saunders' " Manual."

PLATE CV.

~-K

GREAT AUK.

GREAT AUK. 1 I 3

inhabitants of Ireland." Two other specimens were taken
near the entrance of Waterford Harbour in May, 1834.
Three other instances of the capture of the Great Auk have
been recorded by Thompson, but confirmatory evidence is
lacking.

Range outside the British Islands. — Iceland seems to have
been the last known resort of the present species, which
appears at no time to have been an Arctic bird. Its bones
have also been discovered in the kitchen-middens of Den-
mark, and the remains of the species discovered on Funk
Island, off Newfoundland, have been considerable.

Habits.— The scanty notes on the habits of the Great Auk
are derived from the accounts of early voyagers. Although
incapable of flight, its diving powers are admitted to have
been extraordinary. Like other flightless birds, it seems to
have been stupidly tame in its disposition, and this fact alone
accounts for its rapid extermination. The bird captured off .
Waterford actually approached the boat for food, and was
apparently in a starving condition. " For some days after its
capture it ate greedily of potatoes mashed in milk. After
keeping it for ten days, it was sold to Mr. Davis, who sent it
to Mr. Gough, of Horetown, co. Wexford. ^ Singularly, for
about three weeks after its transference to its new home, it
was not known to eat anything. Mr. Gough, fearing it would
succumb, caused potatoes and milk to be forced down its
throat, and from that time it ate voraciously until within a day
or two of its death. It died a little over four months after its
capture. When in Mr. Gough's possession, its principal food
was trout and other fresh-water fish, which it seemed to prefer .
to fish from the sea. It swallowed the fish entire. (Parkin, ,'
" The Great Auk or Gare-fowl," p. 6, 1894.)

Nest. — None, the single egg being laid on a rock.

Eggs. — One. The eggs of the Great Auk may be described
as those of a gigantic Razor-bill, going through the same kind
of varieties as in the latter species, but, of course, greatly
exceeding the Razor-bill's egg in size. The number of Great
Auk's eggs in various museums and private collections is
seventy-one, as I am informed by Mr. Edward Bidwell, who
has personally examined nearly all the specimens.

'5 ... '

114 Allen's naturalist's library.

THE GUILLEMOTS. GENUS URIA.

Uria^ Briss. Orn. vi. p. 70 (1760).

Type U. troile (Linn.).

In the true Guillemots there are no sulcations on the bill
and no wattles on the face. The bill is compressed and
slender, sometimes rather long, its length from the gape
equal to or exceeding that of the middle toe and claw ; the
nasal aperture is hemmed in with close-set plumes, extending
to the upper shelf of the nostril.

I. THE COMMON GUILLEMOT. URIA TROILE.

Colymhiis troile, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 220 (1766).

Uria /m/^, Macgill, Brit. B. V. p. 318 (1852); Saunders, ed.
Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 69 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 683
(1889) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxi. (1892).

Aha troile. Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 567, pi. 621 (1877);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 388 (1885).

Lomvia troile, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 206 (1883).

{Plate CVL)

Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — General colour above smoky-
brown, the head, neck, and throat paler and more earthy-brown,
the rest of the upper parts being gradually darker ; wings like
the back, the secondaries tipped with white, forming a bar ; under
surface of body white from the lower throat downwards, the
line of demarcation passing obliquely downwards to the sides
of the back ; the sides of the body and flanks streaked with
sooty-grey, the feathers being edged with this colour ; thighs
brown ; the under wing-coverts white, the lower primary-coverts
ashy ; quills dusky-brown below, whitish towards the base of
the inner web; bill black ; legs and feet olive ; irides hazel.
Total length, i7'o inches ; wing, 7-9.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in having the throat white like the rest of the under surface ;
the cheeks also white, as well as the sides of the neck from
just behind the eye ; the lores, feathers round the eyes, and a
broad streak along the top of the ear-coverts, black.

COMMOI^ GUILLEMOT. II5

Young in Winter Plumage. — Seems to resemble the adult at
the same time of year, but the white on the fore-neck is mottled
with blackish fringes to the feathers, those of the hinder part of
the white band on the side of the head being also freckled with
black.

Nestling. — General colour above dusky chocolate-brown, the
head and neck like the back, but covered with hair-like white
down ; cheeks white, streaked with black ; under surface of
body pure white, the throat slightly freckled with dusky margins
to the feathers ; sides of body dusky-brown, the flanks with a
white patch, and another white patch on each side of the rump.

Range in Great Britain. — The Guillemot frequents the same
localities as the Razor-bill, but is more plentiful than the latter
bird. It is found breeding on all suitable cliffs throughout the
British Islands, Flamborough Head being one of the best-known
localities for the species. Mr. Ussher says that, in Ireland, it
"breeds in great colonies on the sea-cliffs, usually in the
vicinity of those of the Razor-bill, but on more open ledges
and platforms." The same counties may be enumerated as in
the case of the Razor-bill, with the exception of Waterford.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is found
in great numbers in Iceland, and the Faeroes, and up to the
Varanger Fjord in Norway, and even to Bear Island. It breeds
on Bornholm in the Baltic, and a small colony inhabits the
northern end of Heligoland during the summer. Colonies are
also found on the northern and western coasts of France, and
the most southerly breeding-place is off the coast of Portugal,
w^here Mr. Tait has found and obtained eggs from the Berlengas
Islands off the mouth of the Tagus. In North America it
breeds from New England down to about 64° N. Lat., and in the
Atlantic it is found as far south as 30° N. Lat. in winter, but
appears seldom to enter the Mediterranean. The Guillemot of
the Pacific coasts is supposed to be a distinct species, and is
known as U. calif arnica^ but I cannot find sufficient evidence to
separate this bird specifically from U. troile. At first sight the
bill seems to be somewhat different, appearing rather stouter,
with the angle of the genys more acute, and the flanks have the
brown streaks more plainly indicated. Among the European
specimens, however, in the British Museum, I find certain

I 2

ii6 Allen's naturalist's library.

individuals which match the Western American ones in every
respect, and I do not consider that the two races can be
separated.

Habits. — Although the Guillemot returns to its breeding
stations in vast numbers in the summer, I believe that there are
many individuals that do not breed at all, for I have seen
plenty of them in June at least one hundred miles from land,
swimming about in the middle of the sea, and resting on the
water in the laziest manner. In calm weather they even sleep
in the middle of the summer's day, so that on more than one
occasion the bow of the steamer was upon them ere they
hurriedly woke up and dived to a safer distance.

I quote Seebohm's account of the habits of the Guillemot
on the Fames. He had in his possession some beautiful
paintings of the bird-life on these islands, and the journals
of his visits to this locality were always very interesting
reading. He describes the nesting of the Guillemot as
follows : —

" For the greater part of the year the Guillemot's haunt is
the open sea ; but in the breeding season it retires landwards to
its favourite cliffs and rocky islets. A nursery of these birds
presents one of the most interesting phases of bird-life.
Whether it be the brave old headland cliffs of Flamborough
Head and Bempton, the curious ' Pinnacles ' at the Fames,
the rugged coasts of Wales, the innumerable nurseries on the
Scottish rocks and islets, or a ' fuglevoer ' among the Norwegian
Fjords — all possess abundant attractions for the naturalist, and
well repay repeated visits.

" So soon as the breeding-season has passed, even before the
young birds have fully gained the use of their wings, the
Guillemots forsake the cliffs and spend the rest of the year upon
the open sea. A rocky shore is now no more attraction to them
than a low and sandy one, and they may be frequently seen in
the sea off such low-lying coasts as those of Lincoln and Norfolk.
The Guillemot is to some extent a migratory bird, but is,
perhaps, better described as a wandering one, straying hundreds,
even thousands, of miles from its breeding-place and its true
home. Certain it is, we know on good authority, that the birds
are never seen on the cliffs at Flamborough or at the Fames for
several months after the young are reared. On Heligoland the

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COMMON GUILLEMOT. II7

birds reappear during the months of November and December,
at least half of them being young ones ; and in some of the
migration-reports the Guillemot is returned as appearing at its
breeding-places suddenly, and just as suddenly leaving them
again when the duties of the season are over.

" The Guillemot is an expert diver, very often diving
so suddenly as to defy the quickest shots, disappearing at
the flash of the gun, to rise again at some distance quite
unharmed. We have but little opportunity, if any, of observing
the bird's aquatic gambols in its own native ocean ; but the
Guillemots in the salt-water tanks at the Brighton Aquarium are
a source of never-ending interest and amusement to visitors.
Using their wings much after the manner that a fish does its
fins, they progress through the water, darting hither and thither
with great rapidity. In swimming, the Guillemot uses its legs
as a motor, but in diving the wings alone are used ; the whole
body of the bird is covered with a mass of air-bubbles, and it
leaves a train of these bubbles behind it, glistening like silver
and pearls, which adds much to the beauty of the performance.
Sometimes the descent of the bird is perpendicular, sometimes
in an oblique direction ; and its progress under the water is
made apparently as easily as through the air, even more so,
turning and gliding about with ever graceful movements, and
sometimes hovering over a morsel of food like a Tern. The
Guillemots at the Aquarium rarely stay under the surface more
than half-a-minute ; but in the open sea I have known them to
remain down for a much longer time.

" The food of the Guillemot is largely composed of the fry
of fishes, notably that of the herring ; but this fare is also
varied by small crustaceans, marine insects, molluscs, and
various small fish. This food is often obtained near the coasts,
in sheltered bays and estuaries, where the birds congregate in
large numbers ; but at night they generally go out to the open
sea, except during the breeding season. The Guillemot is often
caught in the herring nets, and is sometimes taken on the
hooks baited with small fishes. It takes its prey, if it be a
fish, crosswise, and swallows it after changing its position. The
young birds are fed by their parents on portions of fish, and
even when they are sufficiently matured to seek the water they
are still tended by the old birds.

ii8 Allen's naturalist's library.

" As a rule the Guillemot is a remarkably silent bird ; and
no matter how large its colony may be, but little or no noise is
heard, save the whirr of their short wings as they leave the
ledges, and an occasional hoarse guttural note as they struggle
for a point of vantage on the rocks. When seriously alarmed,
they often utter this note whilst wheeling round an intruder's
head ; but the Guillemot rarely utters a sound, and allows its
eggs to be taken, or its privacy disturbed, without offering any
noisy resistance or remonstrance.

"The breeding- season is the time when the Guillemot's habits
are most interesting and the easiest to observe. During that
period, which commences in May and lasts until August, the
birds are confined to the rocky headlands and the isolated
rocks. Among the breeding-places of the Guillemot the cliffs
at Flamborough and Bempton probably stand unrivalled, so
far as the British Islands are concerned ; but I know of no
place where sea birds can be studied to greater advantage than
at the Fames. I have visited these islands many times, and
every time I have been more charmed than before."

Nest. — None, the Qgg being laid upon the bare rock.

Egg. — One only, pear-shaped. The eggs of the Guillemot
are subject to the most extraordinary variation, exceeding,
perhaps, that of any other species of bird. The series in the
British Museum occupies 13 cabinet drawers. They principally
consist of the specimens presented by the late Henry Seebohm.
The types of coloration are so varied that a special description
of each becomes difficult. The following varieties are perhaps
the most prominent : —

Ground-colour white, sometimes unspotted, the markings
few and far between, but sometimes forming confluent blotches.

Ground-colour greenish-blue, with all kinds of irregular spots,
blotches, and scribblings, some of the eggs being so thickly
mottled as to call to mind a thickly-marked Crow's egg.

Ground-colour greenish-blue, with brown or blackish
scribblings only, these being distributed all over the surface, or
being congregated at the larger end of the egg.

Ground-colour creamy-buff, thickly or sparsely spotted with
chestnut.

ill

BRIDLED GUILLEMOT. II9

Ground-colour greenish, thickly spotted or clouded with
brown or chestnut.

Ground-colour rufous-buff, with large blotches or spots of
reddish- brown or blackish.

Ground-colour almost uniform greenish-blue, without spots.

Ground-colour bluish or greenish-white, with blackish spots,
dots, or scribblings, often confluent round the larger end of the
egg, where there is generally a large black patch, often inter-
spersed with reddish, the grey underlying markings scarcely
visible in this type.

Ground-colour creamy-buff, with black or reddish-brown
markings, taking the form of a huge blotch at the large end of
the egg ; or with scribblings and spots universally distributed
over the surface, the grey underlying spots being very much in
evidence. Axis, 3"o-3'5 inches; diam. i-55-2*i.

II. THE BRIDLED GUILLEMOT. URIA RINGVIA.

Uria ringvia, Lath. Gen. Syn. Suppl. i. p. 295 (1787).
{Plafe CVIL)

Adult in Summer Plumage. — Similar to U. troile, but distin-
guished by the white eye-ring and the ^Yhite line which runs
from behind the eye down the crease which skirts the hinder
edge of the ear-coverts. Total length, 15 inches ; culmen, 1*9 ;
wing, y6; tail, 2*0; tarsus, i'25.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the winter plumage
of U. froik, but distinguished by the white line behind the eye,
which is retained in the winter plumage.

Characters. — Many ornithologists consider the Ringed Guille-
mot to be a mere variety of the common species, but I cannot
quite understand the reason for this conclusion. If the Ringed
Guillemot inhabited a perfectly distinct area, I believe that no
one would hesitate to consider it a well-marked form, but as it
is, on the contrary, found among the colonies of the ordinary
Guillemot of our shores, there is some hesitation in recognising
it as a distinct species. To me the characters appear suffi-
ciently well marked, the white ring round the eye and the white
streak along the crease above the earcoverts distinguishing
the Bridled Guillemot from the ordinary U. iroile, Seebohm

120 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

writes : "So far as is known, wherever one form occurs, both
in the Atlantic and Pacific, the otlier is found with it, the
proportion of Ringed Guillemots varying from one in five to
one in twelve of the Common Guillemot." He also states that
the two forms have been seen paired together, " and the white
line behind the eye is said to vary in length, leading to the
supposition that intermediate forms are found." In all the
specimens as yet examined by me, I have found no trace of
such intermediate forms, and the inter-breeding, if such there
be, between the Bridled and the Common Guillemot, is no
more than one might expect to occur between two species alike
in size and habits. Such instances are known to occur in other
groups of birds, as is evidenced by the Crows, Dippers, and
Wagtails. I confess, however, that I should like to have in-
disputable evidence that the two Guillemots inter-breed. It
seems to me that such satisfactory evidence must be very
difficult to obtain.

There is no recorded difference in the habits or nidification
of the Bridled Guillemot to those of the Common Guillemot.

in. BRUNNICH S GUILLEMOT. URIA BRUENNICHI.

Uria brunnichii, Sabine, Trans. Linn. Soc. xii. p. 538 (18 18);
Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 314 (1852); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's
Brit. B. iv. p. 76 (1884) ; id. Man. Brit. B. p. 685 (1889) ;
Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxii. (1896).

Alca brueniiicJdi^ Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 575, pi. 622 (1877).

Lomvia briienniclii, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 207 (1883).

Alca troile briDuiichi, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 388 (1885).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above glossy
black ; the head like the back ; the lores, feathers above the
eye, sides of face, throat and sides of neck rich chccolate-
brown, contrasting with the black of the upper parts ; wings
black, the secondaries tipped with white, forming a wing-bar ;
the outer primaries with white bases to the shafts ; tail black ;
under surface pure white, from the lower throat downwards, a
sharp line of demarcation crossing to the sides of the chest,
and forming a blunt triangle on the lower throat ; under wing-
coverts white, those near the edge of the wing light brown ;

BRUNNICH S GUILLEMOT. 121

lower primary-coverts and inner surface of quills ashy-brown.
Total length, 15 inches; culmen, i-6 ; wing, 8-9; tail, i"85;
tarsus, I '4

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Black above, white below; the
lores and sides of the face being blackish, and not chocolate-
brown as in the summer plumage, where they are in contrast
to the black head ; the hinder cheeks and sides of the neck
showing a white patch which is more or less mottled with
black, as is also the lower throat ; the upper throat white, with
a black spot on the chin ; the swollen base of the cutting edge
of the mandible less distinctly marked.

Young. — Resembles the adult in winter plumage, but is whiter
on the throat and sides of the neck, these parts not having the
black mottling of the adult. A young female obtained by Dr.
Stejneger on Bering Island, on the 3rd of January, had the " bill
dark, almost blackish, bluish-grey, with a light spot on the
genys in front of the angle ; feet light bluish pearl-grey, with a
faint yellowish tinge in front (not greenish, however), the joints
darker bluish-grey, underneath blackish-grey."

Characters. — The thick bill, with its enamelled appearance
near the gape, distinguishes Briinnich's Guillemot from Uria
troiledX a glance, and I am unable to comprehend Seebohm's
conclusion that it is so little recognisable as to be merely a
race of U. troile. In my opinion U. briceunichi is almost generi-
cally distinct from U. troile, while its blacker coloration, with the
contrast between the black head and the deep chocolate-brown
on the sides of the face and neck, is most marked. It is
thoroughly distinct from U. troile as a species. I have been
unable to separate Uria at^ra from U. bruennichi, as is done by
the American ornithologists, who insist on its larger size and less
swollen tomium. Specimens from Spitsbergen and the Kuril
Islands have the tomium equally distinct and the wing of the
same length (8'4-8"5). A Greenland specimen has the wing
8"8 inches.

Rang-e in Great Britain. — Seebohm speaks of Briinnich's
Guillemot as " a very rare straggler to the British Islands in
autumn and winter, having been most frequently observed in
the Orkneys and extreme north of Scotland," but, he adds,
" there can be little doubt that it is often overlooked and con-

122 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

fused with its smaller-billed ally." Mr. Howard Saunders, on
the other hand, at the time of wTiting his " Manual," in 1889,
considered that the species had been included in the British
List on very slight evidence, and was inclined to admit only
two occurrences as worthy of any credit at all. In 1895. how-
ever, identified specimens were obtained from the coast of
Yorkshire and from Cambridgeshire.

Range outside tlie British Islands. — Briinnich's Guillemot is a
truly Arctic species, being plentiful in Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen,
Novaya Zemlya, and Franz-Josef Land. In Greenland there are
abundant colonies, and Colonel Feilden observed the species
as far north as Lat. 72°. It is found also on the Pacific side of
North America. In winter it visits the coasts of Scandinavia,
and has been found on the eastern shores of Great Britain and
in the North of France, while in North America it extends as
far south as New Jersey.

Habits. — These, as might be expected, are similar to those
of the Common Guillemot. In some of its Arctic resorts,
incredible numbers of the species are said to congregate in the
North Pacific ; they are usually called Uria arra^ a form which
I consider to be inseparable from U. bniennichi. Dr. Stejneger
writes : " They pass the winter away from the shores of the
islands, probably on the open sea not far from them, as is
indicated by living individuals occasionally appearing during
the winter, and by the dead bodies regularly cast ashore after
each severe storm of the season. About the ist of April, or a
little earlier, enormous flocks approach the shore and take
possession of the rookeries.

" When breeding, the long rows of ' Ares ' * on the narrow
shelves of rocks, where they have deposited their many-
coloured, large, pear-shaped eggs, face the rocky wall with
their white breasts, turning their black backs to the spectator.
When flying off" the nest, they consequently are compelled to
first turn round, and, if taken by surprise, this manoeuvre will
often cause them to throw the egg from the shelf into the
water. It happened several times that, when I stealthily
approached in a boat under the breeding-colonies, several eggs
were thrown into the boat when the birds rushed off their

* So called from their note, ar-r-r.

\AJ

CLACK GUILLEMOT. 123

nests, if the bare rock upon which the egg is placed can be
called a nest, and my Aleutian oarsmen were always in a roar
of laughter when one of these projectiles exploded on the head
of an unfortunate comrade." Mr. Trevor Battye informs me
that in Spitsbergen he saw this Guillemot swimming about
with the young one on its back.

Nest. — None, the single egg being laid upon the bare rock.

Eggs. — Similar to those of the Common Guillemot, and
subject to the same variation. Mr. H. J. Pearson visited a
colony on Novaya Zemlya, and obtained a series of eggs in
July, 1895. He says :—" The series shows great variety in
colour and size. In colour they closely resemble a selected
collection of the Common Guillemot's eggs, and pass from
pure white to the browns of the Razor-bill, with every variety
of yellows and blue-greens, some being very handsomely
blotched with black."

THE BLACK GUILLEMOTS. GENUS CEPPIIUS.

Cepphus^ Pallas, Spil. Zool. v. p. 2i7) (1769)-

Type C. grylle (Linn.).

The genus Cepphiis differs from the genus Uria in its
shorter bill, the culmen scarcely exceeding the length of the
inner toe and claw, in the differences of the summer and
winter plumages, and in the significant fact that it lays a
couple of eggs instead of one.

L THE BLACK GUILLEMOT. CEPPHUS GRYLLE.

Colynibiis gryile, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 220 (1766).

Uria grylle^ Macgill. Brit. B. p. 331 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur.

viii. p. 581, pi. 623 (1877); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p.

207 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 81

(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 687 (1889); Lilford, Col.

Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii. (1893).
Alca grylle, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 383 (1885).
{Plate CVIII.)
Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — Entirely black above and
below, including the quills and tail ; lesser wing-coverts black

124 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY

like the back ; median and greater coverts pure white, with a
line of black along the base of the latter, this black band
mostly concealed by the median series ; all the under wing-
coverts and axillaries white, excepting those round the bend
of the wing, which are blackish; bill black; feet dark crimson;
claws black. Total length, 11-5 inches; culmen, 1*4; wing,
6"i ; tail, 1*8; tarsus, 1-25.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 12*0
inches; culmen, 1-3; wing, 6-3; tail, r75; tarsus, 1*2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in being white below, the flank-feathers showing black bars,
which impart a mottled appearance to the sides of the body.
The white plumage is assumed by a direct moult, so that in
autumn the birds are often found curiously speckled, when the
new white plumes are appearing in the midst of the remains of
the black sunmier dress. The crown, neck, and upper tail-
coverts are margined with hoary white ; bill black ; feet carmine.

Young Birds. — Easily recognisable by the black ends to the
wing-coverts, and after the moult this character at once distin-
guishes the young from the fully adult birds, the pure white
patch on the wing being a sure sign of an old bird. The
young have the under surface of the body mottled w^ith dusky
blackish edgings to the feathers, these being more distinct on
the flanks. The scapulars are also edged and tipped with white,
giving a mottled appearance, which, however, varies very much
in extent. The feet are vermilion red in the young birds.
It has been surmised that the old birds, having once attained
their black plumage, never lose it in winter, but this is a
mistake. At the same time, it is evident, as I have also been
assured by Mr. J. G. Millais, that the white breast lasts but for
a few weeks, and a specimen killed by Mr. Nikolai Hanson
near Christiansund on the 19th of December has lost most of the
whitish edgings to the feathers of the upper surface, and is
evidently beginning to assume the full black plumage on the
back.

Young in First Plumage. — Dingy black above, and not showing
any hoary margins till after the first moult.

Nestling. — Covered with silky down of a sooty brown colour.

BLACK GUILLEMOT. 1 25

Range in Great Britain. — The Black Guillemot breeds on the
west coast of Scotland, as well as on the Hebrides and the
Orkneys and Shetland Islands. A few pairs also nest on the
Isle of Man. In Ireland, according to Mr. Ussher, it also
breeds, " usually in small numbers in crevices of the cliffs of
Donegal, Antrim, Dublin, Wicklow, Waterford, Cork, Kerry,
Clare, Galway, and Mayo. A great many seem to breed on
the outer side of Owey Island and Arranmore, Co. Donegal."

Range Outside the British Islands. — The present species is found
breeding in the Northern Atlantic, in the Baltic and White
Seas, on the coasts of Denmark and Scandinavia, as well as in
the Faeroes, and in Southern Greenland. In winter it has been
found as far south as Massachusetts, and it also visits the
shores of the German Ocean and Northern France at that
season of the year.

Further to the north, the place of the Black Guillemot is
taken by an allied species, C. mandfi, which is distinguished
by the complete, or almost complete, absence of the black base
to the greater wing-coverts, and in winter the latter bird is
easily recognisable by its white rump and by the greater
amount of white on the scapulars.

Habits. — These are well described by Seebohm : —
" In its habits the Black Guillemot very closely resembles
the Common Guillemot and the Razor-bill. It is a bird of the
sea, and only visits the rocks to rear its young. At all times of
the year it is sociable, though perhaps never seen in such vast
assembhes as the Common Guillemot. It is more usual to see
half-a-dozen birds swimming and feeding together, sometimes
close in shore, in the sheltered sea-lochs, paddling amongst the
floating seaweeds, and ever and anon diving to catch a tiny fish
or search for crustaceans. The Black Guillemot loves a rock-
bound coast ; the surf is never too rough or the sea too stormy
for this bird. It is by no means shy, unless repeatedly fired
at, and allows a boat to approach quite close ere it dives, with
the rapidity of thought, and again appears far out of danger.
It sryims most buoyantly, sitting high and lightly on the water,
with head and neck extended. No bird rivals it in diving, and
its progress under water, aided by its wings as well as its feet,
is quite as rapid as its passage through the air. It dives with

126 Allen's naturalists library.

such rapidity that it is very difficult to shoot at a long range,
as it disappears at the flash of the gun, and is safe from danger
ere the shot strikes the water where it was sitting a moment
before. The flight of the Black Guillemot is rapid, straight,
often considerably prolonged, performed by incessant beatings
of the small narrow wings, and is seldom elevated more than a
few feet above the surface of the water. As it approaches the
rocks the bird gradually rises in a straight line from the sea
and alights abruptly on the cliffs. Flocks of a dozen or more
of the birds may frequently be seen flying rapidly in strings
over the surface of the water, bound to or from a favourite
fishing-ground. It walks but little on the land, though capable
of doing so rather quickly, and it sits on the rocks like a
Guillemot, resting on the tarsus as well as on the foot. The
Black Guillemot does not appear to wander about so much as
the Common Guillemot, and obtains most of its food near
home. It is abroad late in the evening, for it may often be
seen fishing in the dusk^ and it is one of the earliest birds astir
at dawn. Many birds pass the whole night on the sea, sleep-
ing safely on the water, but usually they retire to the neigh-
bouring rocks at dusk. In winter it almost exclusively lives on
the sea, only occasionally visiting the land.

" The food of the Black Guillemot is principally composed of
the fry of fish, especially of the coal-fish and herring, which
literally swarm in many Scotch waters. In search of these fry
it explores the water quite close to the rocks, often seeming
only very narrowly to escape being dashed on them by the
force of the waves. It also feeds largely on crustaceans and
very small shellfish. The note of the Black Guillemot is
described by Capt. Feilden as a plaintive whine ; and Saxby
describes that of the young birds as shrill but rather plaintive."

Nest. — None, the eggs being generally placed in the crevice
of a rock, sometimes at the base of a cliff, at other times at a
height of several hundred feet, while occasionally the bird is
found breeding far inland.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour white or greenish-
white, with black spots generally distributed over the egg, and
with very distinct underlying spots of purplish-grey, which
sometimes form large blotches. The black markings are often

LITTLE AUK. 12'J

confluent, and form a very big patch. Varieties also occur in
which the ground-colour is of a faint lilac, with blotches of
brown and grey of about equal size occurring all over the egg.
Axis, 2'i-2-55 inches; diam., i-55-i'7.

THE ROTCHES, OR LITTLE AUKS. GENUS ALLE.

A/k, Link. Beschr. Nat. Samml. Univ. Rostock, i. p. 17 (1806).

Type A. alle (Linn.).

The Little Auks are of diminutive size, with a small swollen
bill without any sulcations or ridges ; the culmen is rounded,
the length from the gape to the tip of the bill being less than
the middle toe and claw, and there is no notch near the end
of the upper mandible. The nostrils are ovate and exposed,
the frontal plumes not impinging upon the nasal apertures.
The line of the tomia, or cutting edge of the bill, is
decurved.

L THE LITTLE AUK. ALLE ALLE.

Alca alle, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 211 (1766); Seebohm, Hist.

Brit. B. iii. p. 380(1885).
Mergulus alle, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 340 (1852); Dresser, B.

Eur. viii. p. 591, pi. 624 (1877); B. O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 208 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 85

(1884); id. Man. Brit. B. p. 689 (1889); Lilford, Col.

Fig. Brit. B. part xxiii. (1893).

{Plate CIX.)

Adult. — General colour above black, varied on the scapulars
with a few white streaks, these feathers being edged with
white ; wings and tail black, the secondaries tipped with white ;
sides of head and throat and fore-neck sooty black ; remain-
der of under surface from the chest downwards pure
white ; the flanks streaked with black, the feathers being
internally black, externally white; under wing-coverts and
axillaries blackish ; the greater coverts and the lower primary-
coverts tipped with white ; quills ashy below ; bill leaden
black ; feet and toes livid brown, the webs darker ; iris hazel
Total length, 7-5 inches; culmen, 0*65; wing, 4-65 ; tail, i'3;
tarsus, 07.

I2S allkn's naturalist's library.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Differs from the summer plumage
in wanting the black on the throat; the lores, base of chin, and
feathers round the eye black ; the sides of the neck white,
with an indistinct collar round the hind-neck ; the sides of the
neck and the lower throat and fore-neck slightly mottled with
blackish sub-terminal markings.

Considerable variation takes place in the amount of white
on the under wing-coverts, which seems to be present in most
winter-plumaged specimens, but is absent in some of them,
and it is also absent in two summer-plumaged specimens
examined by me. In the bird described, however, it is very
strongly marked, and the white tips extend over all the
marginal coverts on the outside of the wing underneath.

Range in Great Britain. — A winter visitor to our shores, some-
times occurring in great numbers, and often driven far inland by
stress of weather. Specimens in summer plumage have also
been observed, but up to the present date no authentic instance
of the breeding of the species within British waters has been
recorded. Mr. Howard Saunders states that he saw an old
bird with its young one near the island of Pabbay in the
Outer Hebrides on the 5th of August, 1886 ; and an adult was
actually obtained off Monach Island, in the same group, on
the 24th of June, 1893. In the winter of 1894-95 a great
visitation of the species took place, and a large number of
specimens were captured in various parts of the British Islands.
A paper on the occurrences in Scotland w\as published by Mr.
W. Eagle Clarke in the " Aimals of Scottish Natural History,"
for April, 1895.

Range outside the British Islands. — The IJttle Auk breeds in
Greenland in great numbers up to nearly 79° N. lat., as well
as on Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, Franz-Josef Land, and
Northern Iceland. In winter it is found in the North Sea
and Atlantic, and has been known to extend as far south as
the Azores and the Canaries, while on the American side it
has been procured off the New England coast in winter.

Habits.— Mr. Howard Saunders remarks: — "On the ap-
proach of a vessel, this bird has a peculiar habit of splashing
along the surface of the water — as if unable to fly — and then
diving through the crest of an advancing wave. It swims

LITTLE AUK. 1 29

rather deep, and very much 'by the stern,' as Mr. Abel
Chapman has remarked ; so that, apart from its diminutive
size, it is easily recognisable. The Little Auk bears a remark-
able resemblance to the Diving Petrels {Pelecanoides) of the
Antarctic seas. " Both the birds," says the Rev. A. E. Eaton,
" have a hurried flight ; both of them, while flying, dive into
the sea without any interruption in the action of their wings,
and also emerge from beneath the surface flying, and they
both of them swam with the tail rather deep in the water.
But this resemblance does not extend to other particulars of
their habits. The Rotche, when breeding, usually flies and
fishes in small flocks of six or a dozen birds, and breeds in
communities of considerable size, which are excessively noisy.
Diving Petrels, on the other hand, are more domestic in
their mode of living, fishing and flying, for the most part, in
pairs or alone, and breeding sporadically."

Seebohm gives the following account of the habits of the
species : —

" The Little Auk is almost exclusively an oceanic bird, and
seldom approaches land except during the breeding season. It
sleeps on the water with its head tucked under its wing, and in
rough weather is often tossed from wave to wave without apparent
injury. It is a very expert diver, and can fly with great rapidity,
though it is obliged to move its short wings almost as quickly
as a Humming-bird or a Hawk-moth. Its flight is without
undulations, but it turns with great ease. It is one of the most
gregarious of birds, and Arctic travellers have sometimes
estimated the flocks to consist of millions. It does not appear
to be very active on the land. It is said to sit on the tarsus as
well as on the foot, but only rests on its feet when running.
At all seasons of the year flocks of these little birds may be
observed in the open Polar seas, diving in search of food or
pe^-ching on the masses of ice. Unlike the Guillemot and
Razor-bill it is a very noisy bird, and its notes are constantly
uttered both when on the wing and when at rest, either on the
rocks or on the ice floes, or even when sitting on its egg. Its
specific name of alle is said to bear a slight resemblance to its
note.

" Soon after the young are hatched their parents convey
them to the sea, where they may often be seen long before they
^5 ^

I JO ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

are able to fly. The breeding places are now deserted, and the
little birds wander about the open ocean in search of their
favourite food. In rough weather they are said to come nearer
to the shore, and to frequent the land-locked bays and quiet
fjords. They seem but poorly adapted to withstand any
violent storm, and are soon driven exhausted ashore, often for
some considerable distance inland. The Little Auk only rears
one nestling in the year, but it probably lays again if its first
egg is taken.

" The food of the Little Auk is principally composed of
minute crustaceans, and probably small fish and marine insects.
When engaged in rearing its young, it appears to store a great
quantity of these small crustaceans in its mouth, visibly puffing
out its cheeks as Swallows and other insect-feeding birds do, so
that it may convey a large amount of food to its distant nestling
at once."

Nest. — None, the eggs being either placed in a cliff high above
the water, or in a crevice or under stones, often at some dis-
tances beneath the latter.

Eggs. — One. Uniform greenish-white. Axis, i'g-2'1 inches;
diam., i-3-i*35-

THE PUFFINS. GENUS FRATERCULA.

Fi'atercula^ Briss. Orn. vi. p. 81 (1760).

Type, F. aixtica (Linn.).

The Puffins are easily distinguished from the rest of the
Auks by their peculiar bill, which has deep grooves or sulca-
tious, while in summer there are some wattles on the face.
The nostrils are exposed, and are not approached by any of
the close-set plumes of the face. In some of the Pacific
species of Puffins {Litiida), there is a remarkable tuft of hairy
straw coloured feathers springing from behind the eye.

L JlIE PUFFIN. FRATERCULA ARCTICA.

Alca ardica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 211 (1766).
Mormon arcticus, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 365 (1852).
Fratercula arctica, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 599, pi. 625 (1877);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 208 (1883); Saunders, ed.

PLATE ex.

<3^4

tl ^%%.

PUFFIN.

PUFFIN. 131

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 691 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit.
B. iii. p. 364 (1885) ; Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 691
(1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part x. (1889).

{Plate ex.)

Adult Male in Summer Plumage, — General colour above black,
including the wings and tail ; the quills ashy-brown on their
inner webs ; head black like the back, Avith a narrow, faintly
defined line of grey round the nape ; the lores, eye-brows,
and sides of crown, sides of face, cheeks, chin, and upper
throat pale grey, a little darker at the base of the lower
mandible and on the chin, forming a kind of dusky moustachial
band; under surface of body, from the lower throat downward,
pure white, separated from the grey of the face and chin by a
broad black band across the middle of the throat, joining the
sides of the neck on either side ; under surface of the quills
and under wing-coverts light ashy ; axillaries and adjoining
feathers on the sides of the body blackish ; thighs ashy-brown ;
" the bill has the terminal half of both mandibles carmine,
followed by a narrow band of pale yellow, and the basal half
slate-grey, followed by another pale yellow band at the base of
the upper mandible, and a red one at the base of the lower ;
legs and feet orange ; iris hazel ; orbits carmine ; bare horny
skin above and below the eye slate-grey ; loose skin at the
gape yellow" {Seehohui). Total length, 13-0 inches; culmen,
1*8; wing, 6*3 ; tail, 175; tarsus, 0*95.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male ; but with a somewhat
smaller bill. Total length, 12 inches ; culmen, 1*5 ; wing, 6"o;
tail, 1*65 ; tarsus, o'g.

Winter Plumage. — The black shade on the face is present in
all the specimens killed in winter, so far as the British Museum
colkction is concerned, even when the bill is developed to its
full size. Whether this is a sign of immaturity or whether it is
also a mark of winter plumage in the adults, I am unable to
say for certain. By the shedding of the ornamental portions
of the bill, the latter is very much smaller in winter than in
summer.

Nestling. — Covered with sooty-black down, with a large patch
of creamy-white on the belly.

K 2

1 3-' ALLP:N S NATURM.ISTS LIliRARY.

Youn^. — Like the adults in colour, but easily distinguished by
its small bill, and the greater amount of dusky black on the
face, which extends over the lores and round the eye. The
culmen is nearly straight, and the maxilla without corrugations ;
the genys, on the other hand, is abruptly curved upwards

towards the tip.

»

Range in Great Britain. — Large colonies of Puffins are found
breeding in various localities in the United Kingdom, par-
ticularly on the west coast, from the Scilly Islands northwards.
Some nest also on the south-west coast, of England, from the
Isle of Wight to Cornwall. On the east coast of England,
Flamborough and the Fame Islands are well-known breeding
haunts of the Puffin. In Ireland, says Mr. Ussher, " the species
has some vast colonies on the precipitous coasts and islands,
and it breeds in the following counties : — Donegal, Antrim,
Dublin, Wexford, Cork, Kerry, Clare, Galway, and Mayo.
Some of its largest settlements are on the Saltees, in Wexford,
the isles of Kerry, the north coast of Mayo, and Hoon Head,
in Donegal."

Range outside the British Islands. — From the north of Scan-
dinavia, the Faeroes, and Iceland, the Puffin breeds, down to
the above-mentioned localities in Great Britain, the north
coast of France, and the west of Portugal, where Mr.
Saunders says that he noticed the species in large numbers
off the Berlengas Islands, in June, 1868. In winter the
Puffin visits the Mediterranean Sea, and in North America it
breeds as far south as Newfoundland, and reaches the New
England coast in winter.

A large form, with a somewhat larger bill and a slightly
greyer head, Fratercula glacialis, is found in Spitsbergen,
Novaya Zemlya, and the coast of Greenland. Although the
grey head is more constantly seen in Spitsbergen examples, it
is also sometimes to be observed in specimens of the Common
Puffin, and I think that this appearance may be due to
bleaching.

Habits. — The Puffins feed their young almost entirely on
small fish, and frequently go long distances to obtain a supply
of food. Mr. Draue, of Cardiff, tells me that he once saw a

t'tjFFIN. 133

young Puffin with its crop distended, and he killed the bird to
find out what the food was. The crop contained forty-one
small fish, which have been identified as the young of the
J^ancelet {Ammodyies lanceolatus). Mr. Drane says that he has
seen Puffins in thousands feeding almost entirely on this fish,
which seemed to constitute their chief food. Marine insects
and crustaceans are also eaten.

From its curious bill and large head the Puffin is often
called the " Sea Parrot." It is a bird of rapid flight, and
a most expert swimmer and diver, but is very awkward on
land.

For a good account of its habits, I have resorted to the
writings of the late Dr. A. E. Brehm on the bird-rocks of
Lapland : —

" The farther we went, the more magnificent became the
spectacle. The whole hill was alive. Hundreds of thousands
of eyes looked down upon us intruders, From every hole
and corner, from every peak and ledge, out of every cleft,
burrow, or opening, they hurried forth, right, left, above,
beneath ; the air, like the ground, teemed with birds. From
the sides and from the summit of the berg thousands threw
themselves like a continuous cataract into the sea in a throng
so dense that they seemed to the eye to form an almost
solid mass. Thousands came^ thousands went, thousands
fluttered in a wondrous mazy dance ; hundreds of thousands
flew, hundreds of thousands swam and dived, and yet other
hundreds of thousands awaited the footsteps which should
rouse them also. There was such a swarming, whirring,
rustling, dancing, flying, and creeping all about us that we
almost lost our senses ; the eye refused duty, and his wonted
skill failed even the marksman who attempted to gain a prize
at random among the thousands. Bewildered, hardly con-
scious, we pushed on our way until at length we reached the
summit. Our expectation here at last to regain quietness,
composure, and power of observation, was not at once
realised. Even here there was the same swarming and
whirring as further down the slope, and the cloud of birds
around us was so thick that we only saw the sea dimly and
indefinitely as in twilight. But a pair of Jerfalcons, who had
their eyrie in a neighbouring precipice, and had seen the

r34 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIP.RARY.

unusual bustle, suddenly changed the wonderful scene. The
Razor-bills, Guillemots, and Puffins were not afraid of us ; but
on the appearance of their well-known and irresistible enemies
the whole cloud threw^ themselves with one accord, as at the
command of a magician, into the sea, and the outlook was
clear and free. Innumerable black points, the heads of the
birds swimming in the sea, stood out distinctly from the water,
and broke up the blue-green colouring of the waves. Their
number was so great that from the top of the berg, which was
over three hundred feet high, we could not see where the
swarm ended, could not discover where the sea was clear
from birds.

" The millions of which I had been told were really there.
This picture of apparent quiet only lasted for a few moments.
The birds soon began to fly ujnvards again, and as before
hundreds of thousands rose simultaneously from the water to
ascend the hill, as before a cloud formed round it, and our
senses were again bewildered. Unable to see, and deafened by
the indescribable noise about me, I threw myself on the ground,
and the birds streamed by on all sides. New ones crept con-
stantly out of their holes, while those w^e had previously
startled now crept back again ; they settled all about me,
looking with comical amazement at the strange form among
them, and approaching with mincing gait so close to me that I
attempted to seize them. The beauty and charm of life
shewed themselves in every movement of these remarkable
birds. With astonishment I saw^ that even the best pictures
of them are stiff and cold, for I remarked in their quaint forms
a mobility and liveliness with which I had not credited them.
They did not remain still a single instant, their heads and
necks at least were moved incessantly to all sides, and their
contours often showed most graceful lines. It seemed as
though the inoffensiveness w^ith which I had given myself up to
observing them had been rewarded by unlimited conlidence on
their part. The thousands just about me w^ere like domestic
birds ; the millions paid me no more attention than if I had
been one of themselves."

Nest. — None, the egg being placed in a fissure of the cliff or
in a burrow.

STORM-PETRELS. 1 35

Eg-gs. — White, with a few spots of pale brown. The spots
are generally obscure, and frequently the underlying grey spots
are most in evidence. Occasionally, when the spots are more
distinct, they form zones round the large end of the egg. In
some the underlying grey spots are very distinct and are
scattered all over the surface. The eggs soon become stained
to a buff, or reddish-buff, or chestnut colour. Axis, 2 '2 5-2 -5 5
inches; diam., 1*65-1 75.

THE PETRELS. ORDER PROCELLARIIFORMES.

The Petrels are distinguished from the Gulls and other sea-
birds by their tubular nostrils, whence they are often called
Tubinares. The palate is schizognathous, the nostrils holo-
rhinal. The anterior toes are fully webbed, and the hind-toe
or hallux is very small, being often entirely wanting. The
spinal feather-tract is well-defined on the neck, and the oil-
gland is tufted.

The young are hatched covered with down, and are fed by
the old birds for some time in the nest. The eggs are entirely
white, or have a zone of reddish dots round the larger end.
They are generally placed in holes burrowed in the ground,
often on the lofty summits of oceanic islands, while some
species make a nest in the open. The Petrels range in size
from the dimensions of a large Swallow to those of an
Albatross, which has the widest stretch of wing of any existing
bird. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 341.)

Mr. Osbert Salvin has recently published a classification and
description of the Petrels in the 25th volume of the " Catalogue
of Birds in the British Museum," and he arranges them in four
families, viz. : — I. Procdlariidce, or Storm-Petrels ; II.
PHffinidce, or Shearwaters and Fulmars \ III. Pelecanoididce^
or Diving-Petrels ; and IV. Dio/nedeidce, or Albatrosses.

THE STORM-PETRELS. FAMILY
PROCELLARIID.F.

In this family, which contains the smallest of the Petrels,
the nobtrils are united externally above the culinen ; the

136 ALLExV S naturalist's LIBRARY.

margin of the sternum is even ; pterygoid processes are absent ;
the manubrium of the forcula is long ; the coracoids are long,
comparatively narrow across the base, and slightly divergent ;
The second primary is the longest. (Cf. Salvin, torn. cit. p. 342.)

THE TRUE STORM-PETRELS. SUB-FAMILY
PROCELLARIIN.*:.

The plumage of the Petrels is somewhat close-set and a
peculiar musky odour is perceptible in all of the species, both
large and small. The same smell attaches to the eggs, and
seems never to evaporate entirely.

An. interesting note on these birds has recently been pub-
lished by Mr. R. Drane, of Cardiff : — " I am disposed to the
belief that the birds of this family do not enter the water as
they are assumed, and very i^aturally assumed, to do ; for I
have now had three species., in confinement, Leach's Storm
Petrel, the Greater Shearwater, and the Manx Shearwater,
and, in each case, I find that when these birds really enter the
water, they make strenuous efforts to get out of it, and that,
succeeding, they are so drenched as to be incapable of flight.
This statement has been met by the suggestion that the
unnatural conditions of confmement effect a change in the
quality of the plumage, which might account for this satura-
tion. Remembering this, I immersed a Shearwater in the sea
within an hour or so of its capture, and the result was the
same. Be the explanation what it may, this fact remains, as
the result of repeated observation, that I cannot drench a Duck
or a Gull by immersion, and that I cannot immerse a Petrel
without drenching it. I have failed to tame any of these birds
or to induce them to take food spontaneously."

The members of this sub-family have the following charac-
ters, which are set forth by Mr. Salvin in the work above
referred to : — "Leg-bones shorter than the wing-bones ; tarsus
never twice as long as the femur ; basal phalanx of the middle
toe shorter than the next two joints ; the keel of the sternum
entirely ossified ; tarsus covered in front wiih hexagonal scutes ;
claws sharp and compressed ; outer toe shorter than the middle
toe ; secondaries at least thirteen in number."

Three genera are reprcrcntcd in the sub-family, of which

STORM-PETREL. 1 37

two are British, viz., Procellaria and Oceanodroma. The third,
Halocyptena, is only found off the west coast of North America,
from Cahfornia to Panama, and contains but a single species,
H. niicrosoma.'

THE STORM-PETRELS. GENUS PROCELLARIA.

Procellaria, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 212 (1766).

Type P. pelagica (Linn.).

In this genus the tarsus is longer than the middle toe and

claw, and the tail is rounded or nearly even, never forked.

Only two species of Procellaria are known, P. teihys being

confined to the seas of the western coast of South America.

1. THE STORM-PETREL. PROCELLARIA PELAGICA.

Procellaria pelagica, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 212 (1766) ; B. O. U.

List Brit. B. p. 196 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.

B. iv. p. 42 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 438

(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 727 (1889); Salvin,

Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 343 (1896).
Thalassidro ma pelagica, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 460 (1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 491 (1874).

{Plate CXIa.)

Adult Male.— Sooty-black above and below, with more or
less of a greyish shade ; rump and sides of lower back white ;
upper tail-coverts white, tipped with black ; wing-coverts sooty
black, the greater series narrowly but plainly edged with white ;
quills and tail black ; under surface of body sooty brown,
shaded with grey over the head and face, as well as on the
throat and chest ; under tail-coverts sooty black, the lateral
ones white with black tips ; under wing-coverts sooty black, the
median series broadly edged with white ; bill, legs, and feet
black ; iris hazel. Total length, 6 inches ; culmen, 0*5 ; wing,
4-75 ] tail, 2-1 ; tarsus, 0*8.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 6 inches;
wing, 4-8

Nestling. — Enveloped in sooty down, the feathers as they are
developed being exactly like those of the adults.

jyS ALI.ENS NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Range in Great Britain, — Found on all the seas round the
British coasts, and sometimes occurring in some numbers,
especially in the late autumn. In M_ay the Storm Petrel
arrives to breed, and it betakes itself to the islands off the coasts
of Scotland and Ireland, and also does the same in a few
localities in the west of England, such as the coasts of Wales
and the Scilly Islands. On the eastern coast no breeding
places are known. Mr, Ussher says that in Ireland the Storm-
Petrel " breeds on islands off the coasts of Donegal, Antrim,
Kerry, Galway, and Mayo. Very large colonies exist on some
of the islands off Kerry,"

Range outside the British Islands, — -The Storm-Petrel is an
inhabitant of the North Atlantic Ocean on both sides, visiting
the Mediterranean, and extending its range South to West
Africa,

Habits, — Mr. W, H, Turle gives an interesting account of a
visit to the Blasquet Islands, and tells us how, when he arrived
in the dark, the inhabitants of the cabin lighted their only
candle on receiving him, this candle being a "rush drawn
through the oily body of a Stormy Petrel." Mr, Turle found
the species breeding among the rocks, and in what had evi-
dently been rabbit-holes. It is said to form an article of food
on the Blasquets, and Seebohm ate some of the young
birds during his visit to these islands in 1856. He found them
delicious eating when cooked on toast like Snipe, and he pro-
nounces them to have been " very rich, but not at all fishy."

Seebohm gives a good description of the Storm-Petrel, as
be observed it on the Blascpets : — " Our foreground for half
a mile or so all round was a mass of rocks, here and there
rising into a grassy knoll generally crowned with rocks. No
tree of any description was visible ; we did not find so much
as a shrub on the whole island, unless half-a-dozen scattered
bramble bushes may be allowed to club together and unitedly
attain to the dignity of shrub. The only houses on the island
were a couple of cabins, half above and half under ground,
without window or chimney, and with no mortar in the Vv'alls.

"Whichever way we turned we could see nothing but rocks
and piles of rocks, with grassy slopes between, where rabbits
abounded and a few sheep grazed. The coast was grand

STORM-PETREL. 1 39

beyond description, most of the island being at an elevation of
three or four hundred feet above the level of the waves.
Rocky promontories stretched far into the sea; huge
masses of rock protruded from the ocean and rose one or two
hundred feet high. Here the waves dashed against perpen-
dicular cliffs, and there they foamed and fretted against craggy
piles of rocks ; and in many places the sea had hollowed out
caves underneath the cliffs or worn chasms in the coast, which
extended up into the mainland like Norwegian fjords. Such
was the home of the Stormy Petrel ; but at first we did not
suspect the existence of these birds on the island. The natives
(with whom we were obliged to converse through our
" Buttons," a young Celt who accompanied us to do the dirty
work) continually assured us that we should soon be able to
add the dainty dish of fried " Blasquet Chickens " to our
modest menu ; but it was not until the nth of September that
they were able to produce these wonderful birds, which proved
to be young Stormy Petrels, as large almost as their parents,
with half feathers, half down. Cooked on toast like Snipe, we
found them delicious eating, very rich, but not at all fishy. As
soon as we discovered that we were encamped in the midst of
a colony of these interesting birds we commenced a diligent
search, and soon found plenty of young, besides catching a few
old birds which were still sitting on unhatched eggs. The
nests, which seldom consisted of more than a dozen blades of
dead grass, were placed in holes in the rocks or the rough walls
put up to protect the little potato patches from the sheep. We
could often detect their presence in the evening by the faint
cry of the young bird clamouring for food, and in places where
the loose stones had been piled into heaps we found that the
removal of half of them often disclosed several nests to view.

*'Onthe 17th of September I took the boat and crossed
over to the adjoining island of Inishnubro, and found many
young Petrels and a few still unhatched eggs. On this island
the nests were principally on the steep grassy slopes in old
rabbit burrows. We never by any chance saw a Stormy Petrel
on the wing during the day ; but when the nights became
enlivened by moonlight we could see them flying about like
bats, bringing food to their young. So far as we were able to
judge, this was entirely oil. As soon as the young bird was

I40 Allen's naturalist's librarv.

taken in the hand it disgorged a few drops of amber-coloured
oil, and in none did we find any solid matter in the stomach."

Nest. — None, or consisting only of a few blades of dead grass.
The eggs are laid in May and some are even found as late as
September, so that the Storm-Petrel probably raises two
broods in the year.

Eggs. — One only."^ Dull or dirty white, without gloss, thinly
sprinkled with minute reddish-brown specks, and not un-
frequently with an obscure zone of specks near the larger end.
Axis, I -05-1 '2 inch; diam., o-85-o-95.

THE FORK-TAILED PETRELS. GENUS OCEANODROMA.

Oceanodroma^ Reichenb. Av. Syst. Nat. p. iv. (1852).

Type, O. furcata (Gm.)

In this genus the tail is always distinctly forked, and, further-
more, the tarsus is shorter and never exceeds the length of the
middle toe and claw.

Twelve species of Oceanodroma are known, and the genus is
found all over the tropics.

L THE FORK-TAILED STORM-PETREL. OCEANODROMA
LEUCORRHOA.

Procellaria leucorrhoa^ Vieill. N. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. xxv. p. 422

(1817) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 196 (1883).
Thalassidroma kachi^ Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 451 (1852).
Thalassidroma leucorrhoa, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 497 pi. 613

(1874).
Cyniochorea leucorrhoa^ Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv.

p. 392 (1884).
Procellaria leachi, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 443 (18S5).
Oceafiodro/iia lejicorrhoa, '^^iundiQrs, Man. Brit. B. p. 725 (1889);

Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p 348 (1896).

[Plate CXIb.)

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-black, with more
or less of an ashy or slaty-grey shade, especially on the head ;

* Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey speaks of the Petrel hatching her three
white eggs ! (Cf. Tude, Ibis., 1891, p. 11.)

FORK-TAILED STORM-PETREL. I4I

tlie scapulars with whity-brown tips ; lateral feathers of rump
and upper tail-coverts white ; lesser wing-coverts sooty-black
like the back ; median and greater coverts smoky-brown,
the inner greater coverts edged with whity-brown ; bastard-
wing, primary-coverts, and quills black, the inner secondaries
edged with whity-brown at the ends ; tail-feathers black, the
centre ones rather browner ; crown of head like the back,
the forehead and lores rather clearer ashy, like the cheeks
and throat : feathers round eye, sides of face, and ear-coverts
sooty-black, like the sides of the neck; throat rather
lighter ashy than the remainder of the under surface of
body, which is blackish-chocolate, somewhat lighter brown on
the under tail-coverts, the sides of the vent being white ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries dark chocolate-brown ; quills
below black ; bill, legs, feet, and claws, black ; iris dark hazel.
Total length, 8 inches; culmen, 0-65; wing, 6-o ; tail, 3*0;
tarsus, o'9.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male. Total length, 7-5 inches ;
wing. 6'i5,

Nestling, — Covered with sooty-brown down.

Range in Great Britain. — " Leach's Petrel," as this bird is often
called, is found on all the coasts of Great Britain in winter, and
is often driven inland by storms. It breeds on S. Kilda, and
the outer Hebrides. In Ireland a few were found breeding,
according to Mr. Ussher, " on the Blasquets, off the Kerry coast,
in 1887, t888, and 1889, but not since."

Range outside the British Islands.— The Fork-tailed Petrel is
found in the seas of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, inhabiting
the temperate waters of the northern hemisphere, as Mr.
Salvin puts it.

Habits. — Mr. C. Dixon contributed to Seebohm's ''History of
British Birds " the following notes from S. Kilda : — " The chief
object of my visit to Doonwas to obtain the eggs of the Fork-tailed
Petrel, and I was successful beyond my highest expectations.
We crossed the bay in a small boat belonging to the smack,
dangerously overcrowded, as many St. Kildans as could
scramble into her going with us to search for eggs and catch
birds. Landing on this rock -bound islet was difficult work,

i\2 Allen's naturalist's library.

owing to the strong swell. As we approached the shore one
of the St. Kilda men leapt out of the boat with a rope and
assisted the rest to land. After taking off our boots we
climbed up the cliffs, and over the grassy slopes to the summit,
where Donald told me we should find the birds we wanted.
The place where the Petrels breed is on that portion of the
island nearest to St. Kilda and at the summit. We had not
been there long before Donald, who had been searching the
numerous holes, drew forth a struggling Petrel from its nest,
and I was delighted to find that it was the Fork-tailed species.
Handing me the bird, he quickly drew forth the single w^hite
egg, and I then waited until he found another nest within a
yard or so of the first. Inserting my arm to the full extremity
I felt the little bird fluttering over its egg and drew it out.
This nest also contained a single egg ; and as I was catching
the bird it uttered a few squeaking notes ; excepting this, no
other sound was heard during our stay. When held in the
hand, it emits a small quantity of oil, precisely similar to that
vomited by the Fulmar. Most of this oil comes from the
mouth, but occasionally a little is squirted from the nostrils.
Whilst I was packing the eggs Donald found another nest,
which I took ; and in less than halfan-hour I had taken eleven
nests of this rare little bird. In two of the holes we found a
bird, but no egg; they had probaby gone into the hole to pass
the day ; and in one hole there was an egg, but no bird. We
never found more than one bird on the nest, and only a single
egg is laid. Some nests are larger than others, but in one hole
the egg was laid on the bare ground. The holes vary con-
siderably in depth (from two to four or five feet), and are
burrowed in a precisely similar manner to those of the Puffin.
The holes are made in the soft peaty soil, and it is very easy to
unearth the nest. Sometimes the hole has two entrances, and
then it is necessary to stop one end up to prevent the bird
from escaping. These holes, which are inhabited by Petrels,
usually have a little dry grass at the entrance. Many nests are
placed together, an underground colony in fact, and we found
half a dozen nests within a radius of eight or nine yards. One
of the birds which we caught, I let go again to w^atch its flight.
It flew about for a few^ moments in a very erratic manner, as
if dazed by the light, and then darted up and down, and flev/

MADEIRA STORM PETREL. 143

round and round with rapid beats of its long wings, very much
Hke a Swallow or a Swift. We finally lost sight of it as it flew
behind a large stack of rock and went out to sea. This bird,
during its sojourn in St. Kildaat any rate, is almost exclusively
nocturnal in its habits, and keeps close to its hole during the
day. The egg is incubated by both parents, for I took male
and female birds from the nests ; but, as previously stated, I
never met with two birds in the same hole. Most of the nine
eggs I obtained were quite fresh^ but three of them were slightly
incubated. When I dissected the Petrels we caught, I found
the stomachs to contain an oily substance mixed with little bits
of sorrel."

Nest. — Of dry grass, with round stalks and dry blades, with a
scrap or two of moss, and a few bits of lichen and roots
{Dixon).

Eggs. — One. Dull white, widi a zone of minute dots of
very pale lilac round one end, in rare instances the spots
being spread over the entire surface. Axis, 1*2-1 -35 inches;
diam., 0-95-1-0.

THE MADEIRA STORM-PETREL. OCEANODROMA CRYPTOLEUCURA.

Cyjnachorea cryptoleucura^ Ridgway, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. iv.

p. 337 (1882).
Oceanodroma crypiolcucii7-a^ Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway,

Water-Birds, N. Amer. ii. p. 406 (1884); Salvin, Cat. B.

Brit. Mus. , XXV. p. 350 (1896); Boyd Alexander, Bull.

B. O. Club, V. p. xxxvii. (1896).

l^riate CXIc.)

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty black, the greater
wing-coverts broWner externally, with light brown edges ; quills
black, the inner secondaries greyer on the outer webs, which
are narrowly edged with hoary white ; upper tail-coverts
white, the long ones broadly tipped with black ; head and neck
sooty-black, with a slight shade of greyish ; under surface of
body sooty-brown, including the central long under tail-
coverts, the lateral ones being white, with broad black tips ;
tail-feathers black, white at the base, the white extending
further on the outer ones ; under wing-coverts black, the

144 ALLEN S

median series browner ; bill and feet black. Total length, 7*2
inches; culmen, o*6 ; wing, 5'95 ; tail, 27; tarsus, 0-9.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male. Total length, 7 inches ;
wing, 6-25.

Nestling, — Covered with sooty-black down. The inner
secondaries are narrowly but distinctly edged with white.

Characters. — The present species has a forked tail like the
preceding one, but it is a blacker bird, and is recognised by
the long upper tail-coverts having a broader sooty-black tip
than in the Fork-tailed Petrel. It differs, moreover, in having
the base of the outside tail-feathers ivhite.

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of this Petrel was
exhibited by Mr. Boyd Alexander at the meeting of the
Bridsh Ornithologists' Club, on the 29th of April, 1896. This
individual had been picked up dead on the beach at Little-
stone, in Kent, on the 5th of December, 1895.

Range outside the British Islands. — This Petrel appears to be
by no means uncommon in Madeira and the neighbouring
Desertas and Salvage Islands. It is also known from S.
Helena, and occurs in the Pacific Ocean on the Hawaian
Islands and in the Galapagos. It was first described by Mr.
Robert Ridgway, from the Hawaian Archipelago.

Habits. — Of this species, only described for the first time in
1882, but little is known. It appears to be more plentifiil in
the Atlantic than in the Pacific Islands, where it was first
discovered. Its habits are similar to those of the other small
Petrels.

Nest. — In crevices of the rocks.

Eggs. — One only. White, with an ill-defined zone of dry
blood-coloured spots at the larger end.

THE FLAT-CLAWED STORM-PETRELS.
SUB-FAMILY OCEANITIN^.

In the preceding sub-family the claws are sharp and
compressed ; in the Oceanitince they are very flat. According
to Mr. Osbert Salvin, the witig-bones are shorter than the

Wilson's petrel. 145

leg-hones^ and the tarsus is at least twice as long as the femur ;
the basal phalanx of the middle toe is as long as the next two
joints, or longer than them ; the keel of the sternum has a
large "fenestra"; the tarsi are usually covered in front with
a single shield, or with transverse short scutes ; the outer and
middle toes are sub-equal in length, and the secondaries are
ten in number. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. Birds Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 343.)

THE LONG-LEGGED STORM-PETRELS.

GENUS OCEANITES.

Oceanites, Keys, und Blasius, Wirb. Eur. ii. pp. xciii. 131, 238
(1840).

Type. O. Oceanians (Kuhl).

Two species of the genus Oceanites are known, viz., O.
oceanictis, which inhabits the Atlantic, Indian, and Australian
Oceans, and O. gracilis (Elliot), which is found along the
western coast of South America.

In Oceanites the claws are not so much flattened as in
Pelagodroma and the other genera of the sub-family, and the
basal phalanx of the middle toe is normal or only slightly
flattened, less so than the remaining joints and claws, the
latter being sharp and spatulate. The scutellas of the front
of the tarsus are obsolete, a character distinguishing Oceanites
from Garrodia, an allied genus with a single species, G. nereis,
peculiar to the southern Oceans.

L Wilson's petrel, oceanites oceanicus.

Procellaria oceanica, Kuhl, Beitr. p. 136 (1820).

Oceanites oceanicus^ Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 505, pi. 614 (1878) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 197 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 48 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 729 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 358

Oceanites wilsofii, Bp. ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 449

(.885).

Adult Male. — Sooty black, the head and throat somewhat
ashy, with the ear-coverts slightly blacker ; wing-coverts sooty
15 L

J 46 Allen's naturalist's lihrary.

black, the greater series pale brown towards the tips ; primary-
coverts and quills black, browner on the inner webs, the
secondaries also externally brownish ; feathers of the lower
rum}) black, tipped with white ; upper tail-coverts pure white ;
tail black, the base of the feathers white, more extended on
the outer ones ; under surface of body sooty brown, darker on
the sides, the under tail-coverts brown with white bases ; sides
of vent conspicuously white, some of the feathers marked with
sooty-brown ; under wing-coverts sooty-brown, the inner ones
slightly paler ; bill black ; feet black, wTth the webs yellow ;
iris black. Total length, 7-0 inches; culmen, 0-55; wing,
6t ; tail, 275 ; tarsus, i"4.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 7*2 inches ;
wing, 6*8.

Characters. — Wilson's Storm-Petrel may be at once distin-
guished from the other black-plumaged white-rumped species
by the yellow webs to the toes.

Range in Great Britain. — Wilson's Petrel is apparently only an
occasional visitor to our shores, occurring sometimes in con-
siderable numbers off the south-western coasts of England.
Thus Gould observed it off the Land's End in 1838, and stray
individuals have since been recorded from Wiltshire, the Isle
of Wight, Sussex, Yorkshire, Cumberland, and Lancashire.
Up to the present time it has not been noticed from Scotland,
and only one doubtful occurrence off the Irish coasts has been
recorded.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is
known principally from the southern Oceans, occurring in
Australian waters, and throughout the Antarctic seas, even to
the ice barrier of the South Polar continent. Thence it is
found northward in the Indian Ocean to the Mekran coast,
also off the shores of West Africa, visiting the Mediterranean,
and ranging to the British Islands in the Eastern Atlantic,
and to Labrador on the western side of the last-named Ocean.

Habits. — The Rev. A. E. Eaton thus describes his expe-
riences in Kerguelen Island, in the South Atlantic : — " Having
ascertained their call, w^e were able, by listening attentively, to
detect the exact positions of several of these hidden birds,

WILSON S PETREL I47

They were easily caught when the stones were rolled aside-;
but they were in couples, merely preparing for laying, and
therefore we did not find any eggs. On our way back to
Observatory Bay, after the 'Transit,' we called at the iVmerican
Station, and were informed by Dr. Kidder that he had observed
this Petrel on the shore near MoUoy Point. The sea-shore
in the neighbourhood of Observatory Bay is of a different
character (for the most part) from that which is adjacent to the
American Station, and, being less favourable than it, was
seldom resorted to for nesting by the Petrels. The country
in general about our bay afforded them unlimited accom-
modation. For, provided that they can find a slope of
shattered rocks with suitable chinks and crevices, or dry
spaces under stones or large boulders sheltered from draughts,
whether they be near the Sound or on the sides and summits
of high hills, they readily appropriate them.

" The egg is laid upon the bare ground within the recess
selected by the birds, either in a chance depression formed by
contiguous stones, or in a shallow circular hollow excavated in
the earth by the parent. Having found numbers of their
nesting-places, I will describe my method of searching for
them. Whenever there was a calm night I used to walk with a
darkened bull's-eye lantern towards some rocky hill-side, such
as the Petrels would be likely to frequent. It was best to shut
off the light and keep it concealed, using it only in dangerous
places, where falls would be attended with injury and progress
in the dark was hardly possible, lest the birds, seeing it, should
be silenced. On arriving at the ground selected, it was pro-
bable that the Storm - Petrels would be heard in various
directions, some on the wing, others on their nests, sounding
their call at intervals of from two to five minutes. Those on
nests could be distinguished from others flying by their cries
proceeding from fixed positions. Having settled which of
the birds should be searched after, a cautious advance had to
be made in her direction, two or three steps at a time, when
she was in full cry. As soon as she ceased an abrupt halt
was imperative, and a pause of some minutes might ensue
before she recommenced her cry and permitted another slight
advance to be effected. In the course of this gradual
approach the position of the bird might be ascertained

L 2

148 Allen's naturalist's library.

approximately ; but it had to be determined precisely, and to
learn exactly where she was, the bird had to be stalked in the
dark noiselessly. No gleam could be permitted to escape from
the lantern. Loose stones and falls over rocks — to avoid them
it was sometimes necessary to dispense with slippers, and feel
one's way in stockings only, for should the Petrel be alarmed
once with the noise or the light, she would probably remain
silent a considerable time. Now and then it would happen
that upon the boulder beneath which she was sitting being
almost attained, the bird would cease calling. When this
occurred, and many minutes elapsed without her cry being
resumed, it was advisable to make a detour^ and approach the
rock from the opposite side, as her silence might be attributed
to her seeing a person advancing towards her, and she would
probably recommence her call so soon as he was out of sight.
If she did not, a small pebble thrown amongst the rocks would
usually elicit some sounds from her, as she would most likely
conclude that the noise was being made by her mate returning
to the nest. When the stone beneath which the bird was
domiciled was gained at last, redoubled care had to be exer-
cised. By stooping down and listening very attentively, her
position could be accurately ascertained. Then the lantern
was suddenly turned upon her before she had time to creep
out of sight, and her egg could be secured with the hand, or
with a spoon tied on to a stick.

" Sometimes I worked without a lantern, and marked the
positions of the nest with piles of stones, so that they might be
revisited by day. Several eggs were obtained in February
from nests which had been thus marked early in the previous
month. The first egg taken by us was found by a retriever on
the 22nd of January, on an island in Swain's Bay. Captain
Fairfax sent me a nestling a day or two before we sailed for
the Cape. Two of the eggs were laid in unusual situations.
One of them was found by a man under a Pringlea plant ;
but this may have been an egg of Garrodia nereis. The other
was deposited just above the tide-mark in a cavity of a rock
rather open to the air and light. I had found the bird there
one night, had taken her up into my hand, and had gently
replaced her in the hollow, nearly a month before the egg was
laid."

I \

WHITE-BELLIED STORM-PETREL. I49

Nest. — None, the eggs being laid in crevices of rocks or
under boulders, as described above by Mr. Eaton.

Eggs. — One. Dull-white, with a few lilac or reddish-brown
dots, generally collected in a zone round the large end. Axis,
i'3 inch; diam., 0*95.

THE GREY STORM-PETRELS. GENUS PELAGODROMA.

Pelagodroma^ Reichenb. Av. Syst. Nat p. iv. (1852).

Type, P. marina (Lath.),

The genus Pelagodroma differs from Oceanites in having the
claws flattened and wide. The colour is of a light grey,
instead of black, and the breast is white. Only one species,
P. marina^ is known.

I. THE WHITE-BELLIED STORM-PETREL. PELAGODROMA
MARINA.

Procellaria marina^ Lath. Ind. Orn. ii. p. 826 (1790).
Pelagodroma marina^ Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 362
(1896).

{Plate CXId.)

Adult. — General colour above brown, with a wash of ashy-
grey on the mantle ; lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts,
clear grey with white bases ; wing-coverts brown, the greater-
series ashy towards the ends; bastard-wing and primary-
coverts blackish-brown ; quills blackish, ashy-brown on the
inner web ; tail-feathers black, ashy at the base ; crown of head
and nape dark slaty-grey, darkening towards the nape ; fore-
head, lores, and eyebrow white, as also the sides of the face ;
the feathers round the eye and below the latter slaty-black,
extending over the ear-coverts , cheeks and under surface of
body pure white ; sides of neck ashy-grey, extending on to the
sides of the upper breast ; under tail-coverts ashy-grey ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries white, the edge of the wing mottled
with brown ; quills below dusky white towards the base of the
inner webs ; bill and feet black ; webs of toes yellow ; iris
dark reddish-brown. Total length, 7-5 inches; culmen, 0-65 :
wing, 5-95 ; tail, 2-85; tarsus, 1-5.

I50

ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but rather larger. Total
length, 8 inches; wing, 5-8-6-6.

Young Birds. — Covered with a sooty-black down. The
first feathers resemble those of the adults, but the grey feathers
of the mantle are fringed with white, and the greater-coverts
and secondaries are edged with white at the tips, the grey of
the upper and under tail-coverts being barred with white.
These markings are retained by the young bird, after it has
become full grown and has lost the down.

Characters. — Apart from the generic characters recorded
above, the present species can be easily recognised by its grey
upper surface, blackish head, white under surface, and by the
yellow webs to the toes.

Range in the British Islands. — This species has been known to
occur on two occasions within our limits. One was picked up
dead on Walney Island, Lancashire, in November, 1890; and
a second specimen has recently been recorded from the island
of Colonsay in the West of Scotland, by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke.
This specimen was obtained on the ist of January, 1897, after
a succession of south-westerly gales.

Habits. — Mr. Ogilvie Grant, who met with this Petrel on the
Salvage Islands, writes : — " This was certainly one of the most
interesting species met with during our stay on Great Salvage.
We first observed and recognised with pleasure these beautiful
Petrels as we neared the Salvages, when numbers were seen
flitting along close to the surface of the sea, with their long
legs dangling beneath them and just touching the water. Now
they would be lost sight of in the hollows between the huge
Atlantic rollers, now reappear, closely following the undulating
waters with their graceful easy flight. On the afternoon of our
arrival at Great Salvage we found an egg of this bird in what
we mistook for a rabbit-burrow, but it was unfortunately broken
by one of the men. This, however, opened our eyes, and we
subsequently found that large colonies of the White-breasted
Petrel were breeding on the flat top of the island, in burrows
dug out in the sandy ground, and partly concealed by the

WHITE BELLI ED STORM-PETREL. 151

close-growing ice-plant. It was very unpleasant walking over
these breeding-grounds, which occupied considerable areas, for
the ground was honeycombed with burrows in every direction,
and gave way at each step, one's boots rapidly becoming full
of sand. By thrusting our arms into one hole after another,
we soon procured a fine series of specimens, accompanied in
most cases by an egg, for we had evidently hit off the breeding
season, and most of the birds, having laid their single egg,
were beginning to sit. Both sexes take part in incubation, for
out of twelve birds captured on the egg three were males.
While thus engaged we found quite a number of dead birds
and sucked eggs, evidently the work of the mice, as their
droppings were to be seen all about the burrows, and the
marks of their teeth upon the empty shells were unmis-
takable. The birds, some of which were quite freshly
killed and almost untouched, were invariably done to death by
being bitten at the nape of the neck, and in some cases part
of the brain had been eaten. It seemed curious that these
comparatively small mice should be able to kill a bird several
times larger than themselves, and provided with a fairly strong
hooked bill ; but no doubt the Petrels get caught in the end
of their burrow, and, being terrified, do not even try to defend
themselves. We obtained no young of this species, and the
most advanced eggs were but half incubated on the 2 7th of April.
We never heard the call of this bird ; those flying over the sea
during the daytime were always perfectly silent so far as v.e
heard, though they constantly passed close to our tug, and
there was no lack of them. When caught on their eggs they
uttered a short, grunting note, much like that given vent to by
the domestic Pigeon under similar circumstances. Our Lan-
zarote pilot informed us that numbers of these birds breed on
the Little Piton, where there are neither rats nor mice to inter
fere with them."

Nest. — None. The egg being laid in a sandy burrow.

Eggs. — One. White, with tiny reddish or purplish dots,
sprinkled all over the surface, or forming a zone round the
larger end. Axis, 1*45 inch; diam., 1*05.

152 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

'I'HE FULMARS AND SHEARWATERS. FAMILY
PUFFINID.E.

According to Mr. Osbert Salvin, this family of Petrels
is distinguished by the following characters : — " Nostrils
united, or nearly so, above the culmen ; margin of the
sternum uneve.n ; distinct pterygoid processes ; manubrium of
furcula very short ; coracoids short, wide at the base and
divergent ; first primary the longest, or not shorter than the
second."

These birds are of larger size and stouter build than the
Storm-Petrels, and are divided into two sub-families, the
Fulmarince^ or Fulmars, and the PuffinincB, or Shearwaters.

THE FULIMARS. SUB-FA?vIILY FULALVRIN.^.

The Fulmars are distinguished from the Shearwaters by the
lamellae which are more or less distinctly developed on the
sides of the palate. Five genera are included by Mr. Salvin
in this sub-family, the Giant Fulmar {Ossifraga) being as large
as some of the smaller Albatroses. The Cape Pigeons
{Daption) also belong to this group, as well as the Fulmars
(Fulmarus), and the pretty little Blue Petrels of the Southern
Ocean, Prion and Hal oboe na.

THE TRUE FULMARS. GENUS FULMARUS.

Fulmarus^ Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. p. 233 (1826).

Type, F. glacial is (Linn.).

In the Fulmars the feet and bill are very strong. The latter
is stout, with the rami of the mandible strong and having a
bare inter-ramal space. The nasal tube is short, but well
developed, large and high at the base, equal to the width of
the latericorn (cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 422). The
tail-feathers are fourteen in number.

The three species of Fulj/iarus are found distributed over
the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans.

l^iit "*'

iii-rlK

FULMAR. 153

r. THE FULMAR. FULMARUS GLACIALIS.

Procellaria glacialis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 213 (1766).
Fulniarus glacialis, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 429 (1852); Dresser,

B. Eur. viii. p. 535, pi. 617 (1878) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B.

p. 199 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. i

(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 430 (1885);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 711 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B.

Brit. Mus. XXV. p. 425 (1896).

{Plate CXI.)

Adult Male. — General colour above light grey, with obsolete
paler fringes to the feathers, the rump and upper tail-coverts
delicate pearly-grey ; wing-coverts like the back ; bastard-
wing, primary-coverts, and quills dusky greyish-black, the
shafts white, as also the inner web for two- thirds of its
breadth ; secondaries grey, like the back, the inner web white,
except at the end ; tail-feathers pearly grey, white on the inner
web, and at the tips ; head and neck all round, and entire
under surface of body pure white, with a little shade of grey
on the sides of the upper breast and on the lower flanks ;
under wing-coverts and axillaries white, the edge of the wing
dusky-grey. " The curved point of the bill is yellow, the
sides buff-yellow, those of the upper mandibles being more or
less streaked with dark brown, the sheath investing the nostrils
almost black ; feet and legs bluish horn colour " {A. H.
Cocks). Total length, i8'5 inches; culmen, 1*65; wing, it'o;
tail, 4" I ; tarsus, 2 "2.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 17-5
inches; wing, 13-0.

The Fulmar has also a dark phase, which is of a uniform
dusky grey colour, a little paler on the under surface of the
body. This is chiefly found in its more northern habitat, but
in many places both light and dark forms occur together.

Characters. — In appearance the Fulmar is very like a grey
Gull, but it may be distinguished by its tubular nostrils.
There is no other British Petrel with which it can be con-
founded.

154 Allen's naturalls'j's liijrai;v,

Range in Great Britain. — The Fulmar breeds in some of the
islands of the Hebrides, one notable breeding-place being
S. Kilda. It also nests on Foula, in the Shetlands. Other-
wise the species is a winter visitor to Britain.

Range outside the British Islands. — 'i'he present species is
found in the North Atlantic from IJaffin Bay and Greenland
to Iceland, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz- Josef
Land. In winter it comes south and occurs in America off
the New England coast, and, according to Mr. Saunders, down
to about Lat. 43^ in European waters.

Habits. — Mr. A. H. Cocks has given the following account
of the Fulmar on the west coast of Spitsbergen : —

"At Magdalena Bay we found a 'White-Whaler' lying,
with skins of this cetacean floating in the sea all round her,
preparatory to being stowed away in her hold. Swarms of
Fulmars were swimming close round the vessel's sides,
elbowing and jostling each other, gorging on the scraps of
blubber they oljtained from the skins, and as tame as domestic
poultry. We found we could catch them with a hook and line,
baiting with a small scrap of 'spek,' literally almost as fast as
we could haul them on board.

" On shooting some Ivory Gulls at this place, which
dropped into the water, it was only by keeping up an unre-
mitting cannonade of stones that I could keep the Fulmars
off them until I could secure my specimens. They were
common as far north as we went, and were among the few
species of birds observed among the ice we met with about
the latitude of Bear Island on our way south (4th of August).
There were still a few every now and then after we were in
sight of the Norwegian coast on the 6th, and the last I saw
of this species was near the head of Lyngen Fjord (east of
Tromso), on the 25th of August. To the collector, the Fulmar
Petrel is by far the most troublesome bird I have yet made
the acquaintance of, from its habit, when shot, of ejecting an
oily fluid from its mouth, which stains the plumage. I selected
my specimens, and then took the utmost care in handling
them, but one is never safe until the skin has been actually
removed."

FULMAR. 155

Seebohiii has given a good account of the species, as
follows : —

" No bird is more thoroughly oceanic in its habits than the
Fulmar. It lives exclusively at sea, often at great distances
from land, and only visits some isolated ocean rock to rear
its young. It follows in the track of the whalers, even to the
limit of open water, to feast upon the scraps of blubber and
the oil floating on the sea. It is an almost constant attendant
upon the deep-sea fishing-boats, to prey upon the offal that
is cast overboard, and is often so eager in its search for food
as to allow itself to be caught by the hand. Large pieces of
food are eaten whilst the bird sits lightly on the water, and
tears them to pieces with its strong hook-shaped bill; but
small morsels are either eaten at once or carried off to some
distance, where they can be quietly devoured. The food of
the Fulmar is largely composed of molluscs, cuttle-fish, and
any garbage that it may find floating on the water, especially
such that is of an oily nature. It also eats large quantities
of sorrel ; and the blubber of the whale is eagerly sought
after.

" The Fulmar has great power of wing. It flies in a very
similar manner to a Gull, and is generally mistaken for one
of those birds, which it also closely resembles in the colour
of its plumage. Parties of ten to twenty birds may often be
seen following in the wake of the Atlantic steamers to pick
up any food that may be thrown overboard from time to time.
They never seem to tire, but fly backwards and forwards,
crossing and recrossing the ship's stern, and often settling
down one by one on the surface of the water to feed on any-
thing eatable that they may descry floating on the waves. If
a piece of meat be thrown to them they often seize it before
it sinks, but instead of diving after it as a Duck or a
Guillemot would do, they alight on the surface feet first, and
in the most comical way let themselves sink down in the
water with uplifted wings. They are rather stupid birds, and
do not see half the food thrown out to them, but their power
of continued flight is very marvellous. They follow a steamer
going fifteen miles an hour against a head-wind of still greater
speed with such ease that only an occasional flap of their
wings is observable, and when the stern is reached they w^heel

156 AT>LEN'S naturalist's LIBRARY.

gracefully round with the line of their long outstretched wings
frequently brought for a moment at right angles to the surface
of the water. In very wet weather they disappear ; but half
a gale of wind does not appear to interfere with their move-
ments in the least, except that their wings are more actively
employed, though even then they continually skim along with
outspread motionless wings over the surface of the waves,
bounding over their crests, and descending into the hollows.
It is not to be supposed that the same individuals follow the
ship across the Atlantic. On some days the number is very
few, on others greater, and generally at sunset every bird
disappears."

The following interesting account of the habits of the Fulmar
on S. Kilda have been written by Mr. C. Dixon : — " Most of
the cliffs are broken, and all are more or less studded with
grassy slopes, on most of which sheep graze in comparative
safety. In many places, although the cliff is very precipitous,
it is covered with grass, sorrel, and other plants, and a loose
rich soil. It is in such spots that the Fulmar breeds in the
greatest numbers. I shall never forget the imposing effect of
this noble bird- nursery. Just before I reached one of the
shoulders of Connacher, a few Fulmars were to be seen sailing
in graceful flight above the cliff, then dropping down again
into space. When I reached the summit the scene was grand ;
tens of thousands of Fulmars were flying silently about in all
directions, but never by any chance soaring over the land ;
they passed backwards and forwards along the face of the cliff
and for some considerable distance out to sea, whilst the waves
a thousand feet below were dotted thickly with floating birds.
The silence of such an animated scene impressed me ; not a
single Fulmar uttered a cry, but lower down the cliffs Kitti-
wakes were noisy enough. No bird flies more gracefully than
the Fulmar ; it seems to float in the air without any exertion,
often passing to and fro for minutes together with no percep-
tible movement of its wings; and I repeatedly saw a bird,
head to wund, quite motionless for several seconds, the stiff
breeze ruffling a few of its scapulars and neck -feathers. It is
a remarkably tame bird, fluttering along within a few feet of
you, its black eye glistening sharply against its snow-white
dress. Sometimes I saw it hover like a Kestrel, or turn round

FULMAR. 157

completely in the air, as if on a pivot. But the Fulmars in the
air are soon left to themselves, and all attention directed to
those sitting quietly on their nests. In some parts of the
cliffs, where the soil is loose and turf-grown, the ground is
almost white with sitting Fulmars. Every available spot is a
Fulmar nest ; and as you explore the cliffs, large numbers of
birds fly out from all directions where they had not previously
been noticed. The Fulmar begins to lay about the middle of
May, and I was told that the young are able to fly in July. It
very rarely burrows deep enough in the ground to conceal
itself whilst incubating, and, in the majority of cases, only
makes a hole large enough to half conceal itself, whilst in a
great many instances it is content to lay its eggs under some
projecting tuft, or even on the bare and exposed ledge of a
cliff, in a similar place to that so often selected by the
Guillemot. I imagine that the bird makes a small excavation
wherever it can ; but there are not suitable places for all, and
great numbers have to breed in unfavourable positions."

Nest. — Mr. Robert Read sends me the following note : —
" The Fulmar breeds in vast numbers in S. Kilda, where they
usually lay their single white egg in hollows scraped out of the
grassy turf covering the rocky terraces along the cliffs. Many,
however, lay on the bare rocky ledges, where the egg is usually
placed in a slight hollow or under a projecting piece of rock.
In June, 1888, I got along one of the narrow ledges to where
a Fulmar was sitting, and at length managed to reach it with
my stick. The bird would not stir for some time, but at last
it ejected a stream of oil at the stick, and then flew off,
leaving a single egg which I found, on blowing it, to be about
a week or ten days incubated."

Eggs. — One. Chalky-white and rough in texture. Axis,
2-75-3*o5 inches; diam., I-75-2T.

THE PIED FULMARS. GENUS DAPTION.

Daption, Stephens in Shaw's Gen. Zool. xiii. p. 239 (1826).

Type, D. capensis (Linn.).

As in the true Fulmars the tail-feathers are fourteen in
number in the genus Dapiion^ but the bill is more slender, and

the rami of the mandible are weak, the nasal tube being
smaller, narrower, and lower at the base, less than the width of
the latericorn. The tarsi are more slender than in Fiihuarus.

One species only is known, which is universally distributed
over the southern oceans.

I. THE CAPE FULMAR. DAPTION CAPENSI3.

Procellaria capcjisis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 213 (1766).

Daptio7i capensis^ More, Ibis., 1882, p. 346; B. O. U. List.
Brit. B. p. 199 (1883); Seebohm, Brit. B. iii. p. 451
(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 714, note (1889);
Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 428 (1886).

Daption cape?ise, Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B, iv. p. 11 (1884).

Adult Male.— General colour above slaty-black, varied with
white ; the feathers grey at the base, but white sub-terminally,
the feathers of the back with a triangular mark of slaty-black
at the tip ; scapulars like the back and marked in the same
manner ; lesser wing-coverts blackish-brown, the remainder
brown, white at the base, and narrowly edged with white on
the outer web, the inner greater-coverts pure white, some of
them being brown at the end ; primary-coverts and quills
brown, white towards the base of the inner web ; tail white,
with a broad brown tip ; sides of face like the crown ; a small
white spot below the eye ; upper throat brown, with concealed
white bases to the feathers ; lower throat and sides of neck
with brown ends to the feathers ; remainder of under surface
of body pure white, the under tail-coverts white, with brown
tips ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, the lower greater-
coverts tipped with brown ; the coverts along the edge of the
wing blackish-brown; bill blackish-brown ; feet dark brown;
Total length, 15*5 inches; culmen, 1-35 ; wing, 10-5 ; tail, 4*0;
tarsus, 17.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 14*5
inches; wing, 10*2.

Young Birds. — Are apparently less spotted with white on the
back ; and have a more uniform brown throat,

CAPE FULMAR. I 59

Characters. — Besides the generic characters given above, this
species is unmistakable from its black and white spotted
appearance.

Range in Great Britain. — Only one specimen has been
noted from our seas, an individual having been recorded by
Mr. A. G. More as killed near Dublin in October, 1881.

Range outside the British Islands. — This Petrel has been said to
have occurred on three occasions off the coast of France.
Otherwise it is known only as a strictly southern species,
ranging as high as Cey'on and to ;about lat. 5° S. on the
coast of Peru.

Habits. —The " Cape Pigeon," as this bird is usually called,
is a well-known inhabitant of the southern seas, where its
habit of following ships is remarked by every ocean traveller.
Mr. Gould, during his celebrated voyage to Australia, made
the following notes : — " This Martin among the Petrels is
extremely tame, passing immediately under the stern and
settling down close to the sides of the ship if fat of any kind
or other oily substance be thrown overboard. Swims lightly,
but rarely exercises its natatorial powers except to procure food,
in pursuit of which it occasionally dives for a moment or two.
Nothing can be more graceful than its motions while on the
wing, with the neck shortened, and the legs entirely hidden
among the feathers of the under tail-coverts. Like the other
Petrels, it ejects, when irritated, an oily fluid from its mouth.
Its feeble note of ' cac, cac^ cac, cac ' is frequently uttered,
the third, says Captain Hutton, being pronounced the quickest.
Its weight varies from fourteen to eighteen ounces ; there is no
difference in the weight of the sexes, neither is there any
visible variation in their colouring, nor do they appear to be
subject to any seasonal change."
#

Nest. — Sir Joseph Hooker states that this species was found
by him breeding in Kerguelen Land. He says : — " It nests in
sheltered ledges of clifts about 50 or 100 feet above the level
of the sea."

E^gs. — Unknown,

i6o allf.n's naturalist's library.

THE SHEARWATERS. SUB-FAMILY, PUFFININ^.

These Petrels are distinguished by the absence of lamellae
on the side of the palate, a character which is developed in
the Fulmars. Eight genera of Shearwaters are recognised, the
genus Puffijins being found nearly everywhere throughout the
seas of the world, whereas the allied genera, such as Priofinus^
ThalasscBca^ Priocella^ and Majaqueus^ are inliabitants of the
southern oceans. (Esirelafa and Biihveria are more widely
distributed, and range into the temperate seas of the Northern
Hemisphere.

THE TRUE SHEARWATERS. GENUS PUFFINUS.

Puffiftus^ Briss. Orn. vi. p. 131 (1760).

Type, P.puffinus (Linn.).

In these Petrels the tarsus is distinctly compressed, with its
anterior edge sharp. The nasal tube is low, and both nostrils
are visible from above, directed forwards and slightly upturned.
There are twelve tail-feathers. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus.
XXV. p. 368.) Twenty species are known, distributed over the
seas of both hemispheres.

L THE GREAT SHEARWATER. TUFFINUS GRAVIS.

Procellaria ^ravis^ O'Reilly, Voy. Greenland, p. 140, pi. 12,

fig. I (1818).
P iiffl mis major ^ Temm.; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 527, pi. 616

(1877) ; B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 198 (1883) ; Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 12 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit.

B. iii. p. 417 (1885); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part viii.

(1888); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 715 (1889).
Puffinus gravis, Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 373 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above brown, with somewhat
paler edges to the feathers of the back and scapulars, some of
the latter having whitish margins ; long upper tail-coverts
mottled with white and having broad white tips ; wing-coverts
rather darker brown than the back, the greater series externally
shaded with ashy-grey ; quills dusky-blackish, with white at

GREAt SHEARWATER. l6l

the base of the inner web, increasing in extent on the second-
aries, which are fringed with white at the ends ; tail black,
moderately wedge-shaped ; crown of head uniform dark brown,
scarcely forming a cap, though the hind-neck is lighter and
shaded with grey, especially on the sides of the neck ; lores
dark brown ; sides of face lighter and more ashy-brown ; cheeks
and under surface of body white, the centre of the abdomen
sooty-brown ; lower flanks and under tail-coverts also sooty-
brown, the latter tipped with white ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white, the latter with sub-terminal spots of brown ;
bill dark horn-colour ; feet yellow. Total length, 19-5 inches;
culmen, i'q; wing, 12 "6; tail, 47 ; tarsus, 2 "25.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 19 inches ;
wing, 12-5.

Characters. — The tail is short and rounded, scarcely to be
called wedge-shaped. The species is distinguished from the
other Shearwaters by its large size, the wing being 12*5 inches
and upwards. Its brown back, with the lighter edges to the
feathers, white breast, with the sooty-brown patch on the
abdomen, are also distinguishing characters.

Range in Great Britain. — A more or less frequent visitor in
England, sometimes occurring in some numbers off the south-
western coasts, but rarer on the east coast and off Scotland ; off
Ireland it has been frequently met with.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Great Shearwater occurs
on both sides of the Atlantic from the Faeroes and Greenland
southward to the Cape of Good Hope and the Falkland
Islands. It is replaced by an allied species, P. ktihli, in the
Mediterranean and on the Azores and Canaries. This species
also occurs on the shores of North America and extends south
as far as Kerguelen Land. The Great Shearwater has also
been found in the Baltic round Heligoland.

Habits. — Mr. Howard Saunders writes : — "The food of this
species consists chiefly of squid, and Mr. Gurney found the
horny jaws of a cuttle-fish in the stomach of a bird shot near
Flamborough ; but any animal substance is greedily swallowed,
and the species is systematically taken with a hook to furnish
bait for fish. When alighting it strikes the water with great

15 M

162 Allen's naturalists library.

violence — in a manner quite different from that of a Gull — and
then dives, pursuing its prey under water with great raj^idity,
and often tearing bait from the fishermen's hooks. When
crossing the Atlantic, I have often seen them skimming the
surface of the water without any apparent effort, alternately
poised on either wing, but at times they flap their pinions
freely."

Seebohm, who also observed the species during his voyages
to America, has left us the following account of its habits : —
" In crossing the Atlantic in autumn the Great Shearwater is
much more local than either the Fulmar or Wilson's Petrel. I
have occasionally seen them approach very near the ship, but
they never seemed to take any notice of it, nor did they follow
the ship's wake or stoop to pick up anything that might be thrown
out to attract them. Sometimes half-a-dozen may be seen
together, but more often they are in pairs. Compared with the
Fulmars they look very black, but as they turn so that the sun
shines upon them, they look brown against the blue waves.
Their under parts look almost white ; but as they skim up from
the waves, the brown edges of the under wing-coverts can
easily be seen. The white on the upper tail-coverts is con-
spicuous during flight, and the neck is shortened so as to
produce the appearance of a white streak behind the ear-
coverts. It is impossible to ascertain during flight whether the
under tail-coverts be white or not, as they are always covered
by the outstretched feet. The Great Shearwater has even
greater power on the wing than the Fulmar ; he flies with the
wings more bent, and seems to follow the surface of the waves
still closer ; he really does ' shear the water,' only now and
then rising with a swallow- like flight above the horizon. He
skims along the surface of the Atlantic billows with almost
motionless wings, turning suddenly to avoid a breaker, or to
follow some object floating on the water which has caught his
eye, and which he sometimes snatches up without apparently
lessening his speed. Wind or rain do not appear to incom-
mode him in the least ; he never seems tired. He is very
rarely seen to alight on the surface of the water ; he sometimes
remains in sight for an hour together, but more often he
passes on, and frequently not a Shearwater is visible during
the whole day."

Manx shearwater. 163

Nest. — Nothing has been recorded of the breeding habits of
the Great Shearwater.

Eg-gs. — Doubtless only one. The specimen figured in See-
bohm's " Eggs of British Birds " (pi, 20, fig. 6), is probably
3t a p^enuine e^ff of the sneries.

not a genuine egg of the species.

II. THE MANX SHEARWATER. PUFFINUS PUFFINUS

Procellaria pufflmis^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 213 (1766).
Puffinus angloruin, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 441 (1852) ; Dresser,

B. Eur. viii. p. 517, pi. 615 (1876); B. O. U. List. Brit.

B. p. 197 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv.

p. 21 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 420 (1885);

Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 719 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B.

Brit. Mus. XXV. p. 377 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above black, shaded with grey,
and with obsolete grey fringes to the feathers of the upper sur-
face; wing-coverts like the back, the greater series slightly
browner ; quills black, shaded externally with grey, and lighter
ashy on the inner webs ; tail black ; head and neck like the
back ; the lores and ear-coverts dusky blackish, with a little
white below the eye ; cheeks and sides of face and under
surface of body, pure white, with blackish spots on the cheeks
and blackish lines on the sides of the neck ; the sides of the
chest and sides of the upper breast dusky grey, and on the
sides of the flanks a few blackish markings ; the lateral under
tail-coverts blackish along the outer webs ; under wing-coverts
white, as also the axillaries : " bill blackish horn-colour, the
sheath of the under mandible greyish ; legs and feet flesh
colour, the back of the tarsus, outer toe, and lower outer half
of middle toe, black; iris dark brown" {W. R. Ogilvie- Grant).
Total length, 14-8 inches; culmen, i'45 ; wing, 9*5; tail,
3-15; tarsus, 1-65.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 14-0
inches; wing, 8-8.

Characters. — The Manx Shearwater belongs to the smaller
members of the genus Puffinus^ with a short tail and a wing

M 2

164 Allen's naturalist's library.

not exceeding 9 inches in length. The primaries are wholly
dark underneath. The upper surface is black, the axiilaries
white with a sub-terminal black mark, and the flanks and
under tail-coverts are mostly white.

Range in Great Britain. — The Manx Shearw-ater is found in
winter on most of our coasts, but breeds only in the Orkneys
and Shetland Islands, the Hebrides, and in certain places on
the west coast of England and Wales, as far south as the
Scilly Isles. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher says that the species
breeds on the headlands and islands of Donegal, Antrim,
Dublin, Wicklow, Wexford, Kerry, and Mayo, and probably in
other counties.

Range outside tlie British Islands. — The Manx Shearwater
breeds in the North Atlantic Ocean, in Iceland and the
Faeroes, extending to the coast of Norway and south to
Madeira and the Canaries. On the American side it is also
met wdth, and in winter extends south to the coasts of
Brazil.

Habits. — Saxby has given the following account of the bird
in his " Birds of Shetland " : — " This interesting bird, the
* Lyrie-bird ' of Orkney, usually arrives in Shetland at the end
of April, or in the first days of May, and seems to lose no
time in going to earth, being almost as truly a burrowing
animal as any mole or rabbit. The earliest intimation of its
arrival has repeatedly been brought to me by the folks who
have taken it from the holes. Oddly enough, the fishermen,
who have such abundant opportunities for observation, most
positively assert that the bird is never seen abroad in the day-
time. That they are wTong, I for one can testify. I have seen
it at all times of the day, though, so far as I can remember, not
during the breeding season. Indeed, as Mr. Robert Gray well
remarks, there are few sights more picturesque in their way than
that of a group of Shearwaters disporting themselves in a breeze
of wind. The name of the bird seems to be derived from its
strange habit of suddenly sweeping down towards the surface
of the water, and ploughing it up with its breast. The splash
of the Shearwater is quite unlike that of the Tern, and,
although, of course, on a smaller scale, exactly resembles that

MANX SHEARWATER.

i6S

caused by the graze of a round shot as it ricochets upon the
water.

" The burrows are dug in the dry crumbhng soil of the steep
cHffs, varying from i8 inches to 2 feet in depth, or even more,
and are so narrow that the introduction of the hand is a
matter of some difficulty when the hole happens to be new,
and therefore but litde worn by the passage of the bird. A
fresh hole is not necessarily dug every season, the old ones
being often made to serve again. To look at, the bill would
not seem to be very well adapted for digging ; but still it
answers the purpose, possessing more strength than the
observer would, at first sight, imagine. The hooked point is
very hard and sharp, as a certain scar on one of my hands can
testify ; and the edges of the mandible, too, are very keen, and
have more than once drawn blood from my fingers. The sand
is scraped out in sufficient quantity to form a considerable
heap at the entrance, and very slight disturbance of the heap
will cause desertion. Indeed, the Lyrie is not at all a bird
that will bear to be much interfered with. It is almost certain
to forsake the nest if it be taken out, even though it will
return for the moment, creeping back into the hole after a
Httle uncertain fluttering, seemingly quite bewildered when
tossed up in the air.

" In handling the Shearwater, one need be very cautious, as
it has the habit of ejecting from the mouth a quantity of clear
thin oil, fishy and disagreeable enough, it is true, but by no
means the abominably offensive stuff described by authors.
On several occasions I have found in the stomach of this bird
the jaws of a small species of cuttle -fish, vouched for as such
by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys himself, together with a small quantity
of comminuted seaweed, and some green vegetable fibre. The
cuttle-fish jaws have been found by me also in the stomach of
the Fulmar Petrel."

A note by Mr. Drake, of Cardiff, is interesting, as showing
the way in which the bird behaves when suddenly taken from
its burrow : — " The Shearwater brought out was a beautiful
bird, delightfully sleek and clean, with the charm and mystery
of unfamiliar nature about it. None of the Shearwaters
vomited the abominable oil which Petrels will sometimes emit.
It was thrown up into the air, but bungled its restoration to

1 66 ALLEN'S naturalist's LIBRARY.

liberty, seeming quite dazed, and was only too easily retaken.
Again it was thrown up, and again it blundered, like an owl
exposed to the noonday sun, only much worse. We found
others, one of which I brought home alive; they all behaved
in the same helpless way. We found their eggs, pure white
and very like the Puffin's, but without its obscure maculation.
These birds are so nocturnal in their habits that persons
familiar with the island by daylight only might live surrounded
by them and not suspect their presence. At night they come
out and are active enough, It is then that their singular weird
cry is uttered (why is the sea-bird's cry always melancholy ?).
I heard it as I lay awake in the tent. There was no noise of
wings, no evidence of living, when a ghostly voice said in
plaintive key, as of one who wept, ' Cuckolds in a row,' with
distinctest articulation ; and again, as distance softened down
its grief, ' Cuckolds in a row,' until, still further off, was echoed
back, as if it passed some door that closed behind, ' Cuckolds
in a row.' "

Nest. — Saxby writes : — " In most cases, something of a nest
is made with pieces of dead plants or hay, but sometimes the
bare soil is thought sufficient. It now and then happens that
the nest is made far back in the deep crevice of a rock. Some
have asserted that the Shearwater lays only once in the season,
but my own observations lead me to the conclusion that a
second laying does take place; the bird, however, not pro-
ducing a new egg — it lays but one — immediately on being
robbed of the first, but waiting until the regular time, some
weeks later, when it will either use the old burrow, to w^hich
it has returned occasionally in the interval, or will dig a new
one. After the egg has been taken the bird will often remain
in the nest for several days before finally resolving to quit.
The young bird will keep on the nest until long after it is fully
fledged, and in such circumstances becomes enormously fat,
and is thought a dainty by the fishermen, who eat it with much
relish."

Eggs. — One, white. Axis, 2'3-2 65 inches; diam., r55-
175-

LEVANTINE SHEARWATER. 1 67

III. T?IE LEVANTINE SHEARWATER. PUFFINUS YELKOUANUS.

Procellaria yelkouan^ Acerbi, Bibl. Ital. cxl. p. 294 (1827).
Puffinus yelkouanus^ Salvin, Cat B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 379
(1896).

Adult Male. — Similar to P. p7/ffinns, but rather paler and
browner above ; the flanks dusky brown, and the under tail-
coverts usually dusky brown also. Total length, i5'o inches;
culmen, 1*5 ; wing, 9T ; tail, 27 ; tarsus, i*8.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, i4"5
inches ; wing, 9*0.

Characters. — When the under tail-coverts are sooty-brown,
this species is easily distinguished from the Manx Shear-
water, with its white under tail-coverts. This character, how-
ever, seems not always to be constant, so that the characters
for the identification of P. yclkouamts appear to be the brown
lower flanks, and, above all, the greater length of the tarsus
(i '8 inch), and the middle toe (i"95). In the Manx Shear-
water the tarsus measures 175 inch, and the middle toe only
1*8 inch.

Range in Great Britain. — Two specimens of the Shearwater
from Devonshire are in the British Museum, one from Torbay
and another from Plymouth. The species probably occurs
more often than is suspected, and has been confounded with
the ordinary P. puffinus.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species is an inhabitant
of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, but appears to v/ander
north occasionally, when it visits the English coasts.

Habits. — Doubtless similar to those of P. puffinus.

Nest. — Doubtless in similar situations to that of the Manx
Shearwater.

. — One. Doubtless similar to that of P. pjffinus.

1 68 at,len's naturalist's library,

IV. THE DUSKY SHEAR\VATER. PUFFINUS OBSCURUS.

Procellaria obsci/ra, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 559 (1788).

Puffijius obsairus, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p.' 198 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 27 (1884) ; Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 425 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit.
B. p. 721 (1889) ; Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 382
(1896); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxxii. (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above slaty-black, with con-
cealed greyish-brown bases to the feathers ; wing-coverts like
the back, with obsolete whitish fringes to the ends of the
greater coverts ; quills black, ashy along their inner webs ;
tail black; head and neck slaty black, like the back; lores
also black ; cheeks and sides of face, as well as the entire
under surface of the body, pure white ; upper eyelid white ; the
ear-coverts black, varied with white edges to the feathers, so
that these parts appear as if streaked with white ; the white
of the neck ascending behind the ear-coverts ; the sides of
the upper breast mottled with black; lower flanks black;
thighs and under tail-coverts white ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white, the lesser under wing-coverts black at the
base, and the edge of the wing mottled with black ; bill dark
hazel, paler on the mandible ; feet yellow, with the outside of
the tarsus and outer toe black. Total length, 11 '2 inches;
culmen, i"i5; wing, 6*5; tail, 2-5; tarsus, i*4.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, ii*o
inches; wing, 6-4.

Characters. — The so-called " 13usky " Shearwater is not at all
dusky in plumage, not more so than the Manx Shearwater,
and like that species, it has a white breast. It may be dis-
tinguished by its small size (wing less than 8 inches), and by
its pure white axillaries.

Rang-e in Great Britain. — Two specimens of this species have
occurred for certain within our limits. One was procured
in May, 1853, off Valentia Harbour in co. Kerry. In April,
1858, another example was found dead near Bungay, in
Suffolk. The species can, therefore, only be considered a
rare and occasional visitor to Britain. Both the above-

SOOTY SHEARWATER. 169

mentioned specimens appear to have been driven north by
stress of weather, the first bird having been captured on board
a small sloop, while the Suffolk specimen appeared to have
been injured by hitting itself against a tree. A third example
in the British Museum is said to have been shot in Devon-
shire. It was formerly in Mr. Gould's collection, whence it
passed into that of Messrs. Salvin & Godman (Cf. Salvin, Cat.
B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 384).

Range outside the British Islands. — According to Mr. Salvin,
the range of this species extends over the tropical and sub-
tropical seas of the whole world.

HaMts. — Colonel Feilden found this species breeding on
'' Bird " Rock, off Barbados.

Nest. — None. Laid in a hole in a rock (cf. Feilden, Ibis.
1889, pp. 60, 503).

Eg'gs. — White. Axis, 2*0 inches; diam., 1*4.

v. THE SOOTY SHEARWATER. PUFFINUS GRISEUS.

Procellaria grisea, Gm. Syst. Nat. i. p. 564 (1788).

Puffinus griseus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 523, pi. 616 (1877);
B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 198 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's
Brit. B. iv. p. 17 (1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 427
(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 717 (1829); Salvin,
Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 386 (1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-brown, with a slight
greyish shade on the edges of the feathers of the back, less
distinct on the lower back and rump, which appear darker ;
wing-coverts rather blacker than the back, with a greyish shade
on the greater and primary-coverts ; quills blackish, with a
grey shade externally, the inner webs paler and more ashy ;
tail black ; head sooty black, a little darker than the back ;
lores and sides of face like the crown ; cheeks and under
surface of body slaty grey, browner on the sides of body,
abdomen and under tail-coverts; under wing-coverts white,
with dusky shafts ; axillaries sooty-brown, like the flanks ;
quills ashy below ; bill horn-colour ; tarsi and toes dark hazel.
Total length, 18 inches; culmen, i-6; wing, 1 1 '5 ; tail, 3-6;
tarsus, 2-0.

170 ALIENS NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Adult Female — Similar to tlie male. Total length, 17*5 inches;
wing, I2-0.

Characters. — The present species is distinguished by its
sooty-brown colour, both above and below, the under wing-
coverts being white with dusky shafts to the feathers.

Rang-e in Great Britain. — An accidental visitor. " Identified
examples have been," says Mr. Saunders, "obtained — in our
summer and autumn — at North Berwick, in Scotland, and
along the east coast of England, especially off Yorkshire;
while several have been taken in the Channel as far west as
Cornwall, though the bird is evidently less abundant there
than its larger congener, P. gravis. In Ireland specimens
have been secured on the coast of Kerry and in Belfast Lough,
while others have been observed."

Range outside the British Islands. — According to Mr. Osbert
Salvin, the present species is generally distributed throughout
the seas of both hemispheres, from the Faeroe Islands in the
North Atlantic, and the Kuril Islands in the North Pacific,
to the Straits of Magellan and the Auckland Islands. Its
breeding places are in the south, and its northward migrations
are performed during the southern winter, when it straggles
into the North Atlantic Ocean.

Habits. — Of the life of this Shearwater, but little has
been recorded. Sir Walter BuUer, in his " Birds of New
Zealand," writes : —

" It is a common species in the New Zealand seas, and is
said to be extremely abundant at Stewart's Island, and on the
adjacent coast. It is also comparatively plentiful on the
island of Kapiti, where it is found breeding as late as March.
On the island of Karewa and on the Rurima Rocks, large
numbers annually breed, sharing their burrows with the
Tuatera Lizard, and submitting, season after season, to have
their nests plundered by the Maoris, who systematically visit
the breeding-grounds when the young birds are sufficiently
plump and fat for the calabash.

" Mr. Marchant informs me that he found this species
breeding in burrows near the summit of the island of Kapiti
about the end of February. The excavations were in peaty

DOVE-LIKE FULMARS. 171

ground, over which a fire had passed, destroying all the
surface vegetation. The young at this time were half-grown,
thickly covered with light grey down, and extremely fat. On
being held up by the feet, oily matter ran freely from their
throats. The old birds, on being taken hold of, fought
fiercely with their bills. These birds are at all times more
nocturnal than diurnal, and when hovering overhead at night,
utter a frequent call-note, like fee-tee-fee, from which the Maori
name is derived.

"There are several w^ell-known breeding-places on the
south-east coast of Otago, and on Stewart's Island, from
which large supplies of potted birds are annually drawn and
forwarded to the northern tribes, a po/ia fiti (or cask of
preserved Petrel) being a gift worth the acceptance of the
highest chief."

Nest. — According to Mr. Travers' observations in the
Chatham Islands, this Petrel makes a burrow in peaty ground —
running horizontally for about three or four feet and then
turning to the right or left, while a slight nest of twigs and
leaves at the extremity serves as a receptacle for the single egg.
The male assists in the work of incubation, and the young
birds, which are very fat, are esteemed a delicacy by the
Maories, who hold them over their mouths in order to swallow
the oily matter which is disgorged. The old birds roost on the
shore, and are very noisy during the night. (Cf. Saunders,
Manual, p. 18.)

Eggs. — One, white. Dr. H. O. Forbes gives the measurements
of a series. Axis, 27-3'2 inches; diam. i*82-2-i5.

THE DOVE-LIKE FULMARS. GENU.S CESTRELATA.

Q^istrelafa, Bonap. Consp. Gen. Av. ii. p. 188 (1855).

Type, (E. hoesitafa (Kuhl).

The genus CEsfrelafa comprises about thirty species, mostly

restricted to the southern temperate and tropical oceans,

ranging north in the Pacific to Japan, and occasionally

wandering to the latitude of the British Islands.

The number of tail-feathers is always twelve. The tarsi are
not compressed as in the genus Fiiffijius, but are rounded ow

172 Allen's naturalist's library.

the anterior edge. The tail is moderate and rounded. The
bill is rather short, stout, and black ; the nasal opening is
slightly directed upwards ; the claw of the hallux small. (Cf.
Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 368).

L THE CAPPED PETREL. (ESTRELATA H/ESITATA.

Frocellaria hcEstfafa, Kuhl^ Beitr. p. 142 (1820).

(Estrelata hcesitata^ Dresser. B. Eur. viii. p. 545, pi. 618

(1880); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 200 (1883); Saunders,

ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 8 (1884); id. Man. Brit. B.

p. 713 (1889); Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 402

(1896).

Adult. — General colour above sooty-brown, with obsolete
margins of lighter brown on the feathers of the back ; the
lower back and rump slightly blacker, as also the wing-coverts
and scapulars ; upper tail-coverts white ; tail slightly wedge-
shaped, black, with a good deal of white towards the base ;
crown of head blackish, forming a cap ; hind-neck white, with
a few sooty-brown bars on the nape ; lores white ; feathers
below the eye sooty-brown ; sides of face, ear-coverts, and
under surface of body, white, with a little sooty-brown on the
upper sides of the breast ; a few of the lower fianks tipped
with sooty-brown ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, the
lesser and marginal coverts blackish, forming a broad border to
the inner aspect of the wing; lower primary-coverts white,
tipped with black spots ; quill-lining ashy ; bill black ; tarsi
and toes yellow, the distal portion of the latter, and the webs
for the same distance, black. Total length, i6'o inches ;
culmen, 17; wing, 11-3; tail, 3*8; centre feathers, 5*0;
tarsus, I "56.

Cliaracters. — The distinguishing characters of this species
are given by Mr. Salvin as follows : — " The exposed portion of
the outer primary beneath is dark, not white ; the bill is wide
at the gape ; the under surface is white, as well as the back of
the neck ; the crown is blackish, and the upper tail-coverts are
white. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 398.)

Range in Great Britain. — The only instance of the occurrence
of this rare Petrel in Great Britain is that of a specimen taken

WHITE-THROATED GREY PETREL. 17^

in Norfolk in the spring of 1850. The specimen is in the
collection of Mr. Clough Nevvcome.

Range outside the Britisli Islands. — The habitat of the species
is believed to be the islands of Haiti and Martinique, and
probably Guadeloupe, in the West Indies, whence it occasion-
ally wanders to European waters. The specimens existing in
museums are very few. There is one in the Boulogne Museum,
supposed to have been shot near that town many years
ago. Another is in the Hungarian National Museum, believed
to have been killed near Zolinki, in North Hungary. Four
specimens are in Paris, three of which were sent by L'Herminier
from Guadeloupe, and the Leiden Museum possesses an
example, the history of which is unknown. A specimen was
obtained in Eastern Florida in 1846, and another was shot on
Long Island in July, 1850. This apparently completes the
record of known specimens in collections, besides the single
one from Haiti in the British Museum.

Habits. — Nothing has been recorded of the habits of this
Shearwater.

Nest. — The breeding-places will probably be found to be in
the high mountains of some of the tropical islands in the West
Indies, where it nests, in all probability, in the same manner as
the Blue Mountain Petrel of Jamaica, under boulders and
rocks in the mountains.

Eggs.— Unknown.

II. THE WHITE-THROATED GREY PETREL. CESTRELATA BREVIPES,

Procellaria brei'ipes, Peale, U. S. Expl. Exp. viii. pp. 294, 337,

pi 80 (1848).
CEstrdata torqiuUa, Macgill. ; Salvin, Ibis. 1888, p. 359.
(Estrelata brevipes, Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 40S.

. - {Plate CXI I.)

Adult. — General colour above slaty-grey, the scapulars, wing-
coverts and quills browner, the greater coverts externally slaty-
grey \ tail wedge-shaped, the feathers black, externally washed
with slaty-grey ; crown of head sooty-black, with the lores and

174 ALLEN S NATURALLSTS LIBRARY.

forehead ashy-white, sprinkled with blackish ; feathers below
the eye dusky blackish ; sides of face and entire throat white,
with a few dusky frecklings on the ear-coverts and borders of
the white throat ; under surface of body ashy-grey, lighter on
the lower abdomen and under tail-coverts, the long coverts being
whitish, freckled with grey ; the chest darker and more slaty-
grey, the sides of the breast browner ; axillaries ashy-grey ;
under wing-coverts white, the lesser and median coverts slaty-
black ; quill-lining ashy-grey ; bill black ; tarsi and proximal
half of the toes (except the outer one) yellowish, the rest black;
Total length, io"5 inches; culmen, 0*95; wing, 8'i ; tail, ;^-8 ;
tarsus, I "I.

The above description is taken from the British specimen,
which belongs to the dark form of the species. Some speci-
mens, however, are white below and have a dark grey band
across the breast.

Characters. — The present species belongs to the same section
of the genus (Estr-elata as the preceding species. It has the
dark outer primary and the wide bill of CE. hcesitata, and the
under surface is more or less white ; the crown is slaty-black,
and the upper tail- coverts are grey ; the under wing-coverts
and axillaries are white, and the wing does not exceed 87
inches.

Range in Great Britain. — A single specimen of this small
Petrel has been procured in England. Mr. Willis Bund,
by whom the bird in question was presented to the British
Museum, states that it was obtained on the coast in Wales
between Borlh and Aberystwith at the end of November or the
beginning of December, 1889.

Range outside the British Islands. — Until its occurrence on the
British Coast this species was only known as an inhabitant
of the Western Pacific Ocean. Specimens from the New
Hebrides and the Fiji Islands are in the British Museum, and
the original specimens of the species were obtained by Peale
on the southern ice-barrier in lat. 68° S.

Habits. — According to the late John Macgillivray, the
"Katebu," as it is called in the New Hebrides, breeds on
Aneiteum m burrows on the wooded mountain-tops in the

BULWER's PETRELi 175

interior of the island, the highest of which attain to an eleva-
tion of 2,700 feet.

Nest. — None.

Eggs. — Unknown.

THE BLACK SHEARWATERS. GENUS BULWERIA.

Bulweria, Bp. Cat. Met. Ucc. Eur. p. 8i (1842).

Type, B. hihveri (Jard. & Selby).

The genus Bulweria differs from the other genera of the
sub-family PuffinincB in its long and wedge-shaped tail ; the
nasal tubes are fleshy at the end, the openings separate, and
directed forwards and upwards. (Cf. Salvin, Cat. B. Brit.
Mus. XXV. p. 368).

I. bulwer's petrel, bulweria bulweri.

Procellaria bulweri^ Jard. »& Selby, 111. Orn. ii. pi. 65 (1830);

Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part vii. (1888).
Thalassidroma buhveri^ Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 449 (1852).
Bulweria columbina (Webb & Berth.), Dresser, B. Eur. viii.

p. 551, pi. 614 (1878); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 200

(1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 34 (1884);

id. Man. Brit. B. p. 723 (1889).
Bulweria bulweri, Bp. ; Salvin, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxv. p. 420

(1896).

Adult Male. — General colour above sooty-black, with a
greyish shade over the head and back, the scapulars, wdng-
coverts and inner secondaries with obsolete brownish margins ;
greater coverts distinctly ashy-grey externally ; quills and tail-
feathers black ; under surface of body sooty-black, with an
ashy shade ; the chin, upper throat, and fore-part of cheeks clear
slaty-grey ; under wing-coverts sooty-black, like the breast, the
greater coverts and quill-lining more ashy ; bill black ; the
tarsi and base of toes greyish-pink, black for the terminal half
of both toes and webs; iris deep brown. Total length,
io'9 inches; culmen, 0*85 ; wing, 8'o; tail, 4*35 ; tarsus, 1*05.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 107
inches; wing, 7-8.

J76 Allen's naturalist's library.

Range in Great Britain. — A single specimen of Bulwer's Petrej
is in the Museum at York. It was picked up dead on the
banks of the Ure, near Tanfield, in Yorkshire, on the 8th of
May, 1837.

Range outside the British Islands.— The present species in-
habits the temperate seas of the North AtLantic and North
Pacific oceans. It is plentiful off Madeira, the Canaries, and
the Salvages, but occurs again in the Sandwich Islands, in the
Pacific, and ranges as far north as the islands of the Japanese
seas.

Habits. — Mr. Ogilvie-Grant thus describes the species in the
Salvage Islands : — " The brownish-black Bulwer's Petrel was
met with on Great Salvage. It is a common bird in the
Madeira and Canary seas. We were too early for its eggs, but
obtained four taken at the Lime Island, Porto Santo, and the
Desertas, in the month of June. Our men used to catch
numbers of this Petrel every night, and it was nothing for
Manuel or Francisco to produce half a dozen each out of their
shirts ; but, with the exception of a few which we kept as
specimens, the majority were allowed to escape. The call of
this bird is very fine, and was frequently heard at night, a
pleasant contrast to the harsh voices of the Great Shearwaters ;
it consists of four higher notes, and a lower, more prolonged
note ; the whole repeated several (usually three) times, and
uttered in a loud cheerful strain."

Mr. F. D. Godman, who visited the Desertas in 1871,
writes : — " It is curious to watch these birds crawling along
the ground. They cannot fly unless they get to the edge of a
rock ; they waddle along on their feet, and, when they come
to a steep place, they use the sharp-pointed hook of their beaks
to draw themselves up with. They seem to dislike the light,
and hide themselves under a rock, or crawl into a hole as soon
as possible. I never saw one of this species flying about in
the daytime, though some of the smaller ones are common
enough."

Nest. — None. Mr. Godman found the birds sitting on their
eggs, which were in holes or under rocks, and usually about as
far in as he could reach with his arm. He says that these
Petrels build no nest, but lay their eggs on the bare rock.

THE DIVERS. T77

-One. Bure white, and nearly pyriform in shape.
Axis, i'59-i-8i inch; diani., i-i2-i*28 inch {Ogilvie Grant).

THE DIVERS. ORDER COLYMBIFORMES.

The skeleton of the Divers shows a very well-marked and
curious character in the extension of the cnemial process of the
tibia. The posterior process of the ilium is also approximated
to such an extent that the sacrum is almost entirely concealed.
There are no anchylosed vertebrae in front of the anchylosed
sacral vertebrae, and the median xiphoid process of the sternum
projects behind the lateral processes. The number of cervical
vertebrae is fourteen or fifteen.

The palate is schizognathous, and there is no defined spinal
feather-tract on the neck. Both the ambiens and feraoro-
caudal muscles are present.

Besides these anatomical characters, the Divers are easily
recognised by their long pointed bills and webbed feet, the
hind-toe being on the same level as the other toes. The
tarsus is compressed, and the feet have a curious backward
position, so that it is impossible for the birds ever to stand
upright on them. Considerable discussion has recently taken
place on this subject both in England and America, but the
entire concensus of opinion among field ornithologists of the
present day appears to be that the Divers never attempt to
walk, and that the most they can do on land is to shufiie to and
from their nests with a seal like motion of their bodies. I have
been permitted by Mr. Abel Chapman to use the notes on the
subject which he forwarded to our mutual friend Mr. Howard
Saunders.

He writes: — "Loons and Grebes never sit upright on land.
First, because they never go on to land, properly so called ;
and secondly, because they cannot sit upright if they tried ever
so. Their legs will not bend that way. CuUingford* tells me
that he always has to break the bones of the birds' feet when
people insist on having their specimens mounted in an upright
position." After some criticism of the figures in Yarrell's
"British Birds," and those in other works on natural history,

* The well-known taxidermist of Durham.
15 N

lyS allkn's naturalist's licrary-

Mr. Chapman proceeds : — " I do not believe that Divers or
Grebes ever go ashore at any time of the year. Some of them
' scuffle ' on their breasts for a few yards to their nests, which
are never many feet from the water, not further than to avoid
a bit of flood, and are generally at^ or /;z, it ; but this is just a
'Seal'-like progression, all legs and wings going, when the bird
is alarmed at the nest ; and the track to and fro is plainly
visible. Beyond thus merely landing on some flat lake-shore
or low islet, I never in my life saw either Grebe or Diver
ashore, and never upright, or otherwise than absolutely hori-
zontal. True, in the water, vvhen swimming, they do sit upright
to flap or ' yowl,' but never on land, because they cannot.

" They never go ashore to preen or dry themselves, in the
warm sun, on sand-banks ; they do all that afloat, and their
whole lives are spent afloat, though I have once or twice seen
Red-throated Divers alongside the edge of a sandbank — but
still quite afloat, and, of course, horizontal. They never let
the tide ebb away and leave them dry, as Swans, Geese, and
Game-Ducks always do, and even Diving-Ducks, as Scaup and
Golden-eye, occasionally, but very rarely, do."

THE TRUE DIVERS. GENUS COLYMBUS.

Colymlms^ Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 220 (1766).
Type, probably C. glacialis (Linn.).
The characters of the genus are those of the Order Colyvibi-
formes^ and of the single Family ColyiiihidiC.

The Divers are all birds of the Northern Palosartic and
Nearctic Regions, coming a little to the southward in winter.
Their general habits have been sketched in Mr. Abel Chap-
man's note given above.

I. THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. COI^YMBUS GLACIALIS.

Colymhiis glacialis^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 221 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. V. p. 283 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 609,
pi. 626 (1880); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 201 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 96 (1884) ; Seebohm,
Hist. Brit. B. iii p. 402 (1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B.
p. 693 (1889); Lilford, Col Fig. Brit. B. part xxv. (1893).

GREx\T NORTHERN DIVER.

179

Adult Male. — General colour above glossy black, spotted
with white, the feathers being square at the tip, and orna-
mented with twin sub-terminal spots of white, larger and
more conspicuous on the scapulars ; wing-coverts like the
back, but more feebly spotted with white, the spots being
rounder and sometimes two in number near the end of the
outer web ; lower back and rump more distinctly greenish-
black, minutely spotted with white; bastard-wing, primary-
coverts and quills black, browner on the inner webs; upper
tail -coverts and tail-feathers black; head black, with a
purplish shade on the crown, changing to dull green on
the sides of the head and neck ; the sides of the hind-neck
more distincdy purplish-blue ; sides of face and throat black,
with a purple gloss on the chin, and the throat itself decidedly
more green till it reaches an abrupt line, where it changes to a
beautiful purple like the sides of the neck; across the middle
of the throat a band of white feathers striped with black ; a
similar, but larger, band on each side of the neck ; remainder
of under surface, from the fore-neck downwards, white, the
sides of the fore-neck and chest streaked with black, the sides
of body and flanks black, with small white spots ; across the
line of the vent a narrow band of black ; under tail-coverts
black tipped with white spots ; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white, the latter narrowly streaked with black ; the
lower primary-coverts produced for half the length of the
wings, white, broadly streaked with ashy-brown down the
middle ; quill-lining ashy-grey ; bill black ; legs and feet
greenish-black; iris crimson. Total length, 28*0 inches;
culmen, 3*2; wing, 14*0; tail, 2*5; tarsus, 3.35.

Winter Plumage. — Brown above, with a slight greenish gloss,
the feathers sub-terminally dark in the centre and margined
with ashy-grey, less distinctly on the lower back and rump,
which are consequently more uniform ; wing-coverts like the
back, as also the inner secondaries ; quills and tail blackish-
brown ; head and neck brown with a slight greenish gloss ; the
lores and sides of face brown ; cheeks and under surface of
body white, shaded with brown on the lower throat ; sides of
the neck brown with white edges to the feathers, producing a
streaked appearance, the centre of the feathers darker brown ;

N 2

i8o Allen's naturalist's library.

sides of the body brown, the feathers margined with ashy-grey
like the back.

Young-. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adult, but
freckled with brown fringes to the feathers of the sides of the
face, throat, and fore-neck. Immature birds can be easily
distinguished by the more rounded shape to the feathers of
the back.

Nestling-.— Entire upper surface sooty-brown, a little lighter
on the throat and chest ; the under surface of the body white,
with the sides brown like the back.

Range in Great Britain. — The Great Northern Diver is prin-
cipally known as a winter visitor to the British Islands, when it
occurs on most of the coasts, and occasionally on inland
waters. It apparently breeds in the Shetlands, as the late Dr.
Saxby noticed the species on a loch in Yell in June, and
obtained eggs from there, which could only have been those
of C. glaciaiis.' Mr. Howard Saunders saw an adult bird on
the 19th of July, 1879, ^y^^Z P^^^ ^^^ t>oat in Sulemvoe, and
he adds : — "A few hours before leaving Lerwick I was assured
on good authority that a very young specimen had just been
brought in alive by the Earl of Zetland^ a small steamer which
then served the northern islands."

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species breeds
in Iceland and in Southern Greenland, and across the whole
of North America in the fur countries, as far south as the State
of Maine. In Northern Russia and Siberia its place is taken
apparently by C. adamsi Like other Divers it comes south
in winter, and at that time of year it is sometimes found on
inland waters.

Habits. — The late Dr. Saxby, in his " Birds of Shetland,"
gives the following account of the species : — " Owing to the
extreme watchfulness of this bird, and to its wonderful powers
of diving, specimens are by no means easily obtained by a
person who has not had considerable experience of its habits.
The most favourable chance is when it is feeding under rocks
which are sufficiently irregular to afford concealment to the
shooter, who, it may be remarked, should in calm weather
proceed very cautiously, or the bird will perceive him from an

GREAT NORTHERN DIVER. i8t

almost incredible depth, and, instead of rising near the antici-
pated spot, appear quietly swimming away far out of shot
seaward. In smooth water, a boat and its moving shadow can
be seen from beneath the surface of the water for a consider-
able distance, and hence the bird is most frequently dodged
and shot during a breeze. The instant it perceives itself
threatened with danger, it either sinks the body low in the
water or entirely disappears, seldom emerging jjefore it has
traversed a distance of a hundred yards, or perhaps even five
times that space, according to its idea of the extent of the
danger. When once it has become thoroughly alarmed,
further pursuit is generally hopeless, unless it happens to cross
the track of the boat, as it will do occasionally, instead of
proceeding in a line directly from it. When the bird chooses
any other course than its favourite one, directly to the wind-
ward, a boat under sail in a stiff breeze will sometimes overtake
it, but such a chance is rarely met with. Before its habits
were so well known to me as they are now, I used to pursue
it in a four-oared boat, but ahvays unsuccessfully ; lately, how-
ever, I have been able to get within range with a single pair
of oars, but with a boat more manageable than those of the
ordinary kind. As the boat approaches at first, the Diver
sinks the body very low— so low, indeed, that the water covers
the hollow of the neck ; and the chances are that, when fired
at, it will escape by diving, unless the favourable moment be
selected when the bird submerges the head, or turns it aside,
or rises to flap its wings. I have once seen it take wing imme-
diately on being shot at, and on many occasions after emerging
from a dive taken to avoid a shot. At any time it rises with
great difficulty, and in calm weather especially is very awkward,
splashing along the surface with wings and feet for a hundred
yards or more, the attempt, as often as not, resulting in a
return to its more natural element. The mode in which this
bird dives cannot be easily explained in words. I have
watched it most carefully, but always wnth an unsatisfactory
result; it merely gives a slight staii, if my meaning may be
so expressed, and disappears in an instant. When wounded
in such a manner as to be disabled from diving, it is a very
awkward bird to handie. It will allow a boat to run close up
without displaying any sign of activity ; but the moment a

l82 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

hand appears in reach, there is a sudden splash with wings
and feet, and such a thrust is dehvered with the sharp bill
that, if it take effect, it will probably interfere with the captor's
shooting for some days afterwards.

" Its usual note bears considerable resemblance to the
barking of a small dog ; but upon a calm summer's evening
I have heard it utter a long-drawn plaintive cry so strangely
unlike any other known to me that I cannot even attempt to
describe it. Upon the long-disputed subject of the capability
of the Divers to sit erect, most observers confidently assert
that they have seen it in that attitude. My own repeated
disappointments have convinced me at least that a Cormorant
having the under parts white has invariably been the cause of
such impression."

Nest.— A rude affair of dead grass and water-plants, placed
at a short distance from the water, and approached by a path
worn by the passage of the birds to and fro.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground colour olive-brown or choco-
late-brown, with black spots varying in size, and occasionally
collecting round the larger end, the underlying spots indistinct
and dark grey. Axis, 3'4-3"85 inches; diam., 2'i-2'3.

II. THE WHITE-BILLED DIVER. COLYMBUS ADAMSI.

Colymbus adaj/isi, Gray, P. Z. S. 1859, p. 167; B. O- U. List
Brit. B. p. 201 (1883) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 405
(1885); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 695 (1889).

[Plate CXI 11.)

Adult Male. — Similar to C. gladalis, but distinguished by the
yellow or whitish bill and by the more distinct purple shade
on the throat. The white streaks composing the transverse
band on the throat are much broader and are not more than
eight in number, whereas in C. glacialis there are more than
twelve; the band on the lower neck is wider than that of
C. glacialis, and consists of less than ten streaks of white,
while in C. glacialis there are twenty of these white streaks.
The lower back and rump are uniform, not spotted with white
as in C. glacialis ; bill whitish, a little dusky at the base.

WHITE-BIT>LED DIVER. 1 83

Total length, 29 inches ; culmen, 37 ; wing, 15*2 ; tail, 2-95 ;
tarsus, 3-3.

Winter Plumage. — Similar tc that of C. glacialis^ but dis-
tinguished by the ivory white bill. Upper surface brown, the
feathers darker brown before the edges, which are light ashy-
grey and very broad ; lower back and rump uniform brown ;
wing-coverts like the back, but not quite so distinctly mar-
gined ; quills and tail-feathers dark brown, the latter edged
with ashy-grey like the upper tail-coverts ; inner secondaries
edged with ashy-grey like the scapulars ; crown of head and
neck dark ashy-brown ; lores and sides of face white, like the
under surface of the body, the sides of which are brown with
ashy-whitish margins to the feathers.

Characters. — Professor Collett has given an excellent account
of the sequence of plumage in the White-billed Diver, in the
"Ibis " for 1894 (pp. 269-283, pi. viii.). This paper is especially
to be commended to the notice of those ornithologists who
imagine that there are few facts remaining to be discovered in
the economy of European birds. It is a matter of regret to me
that space prevents my reproducing his remarks in exte?iso.

Professor Collett point out that the young birds of the year
have rounded or almost pointed feathers, instead of the square-
tipped plumes of the old birds. In the following year the grey
plumage is retained, and the worn winter feathering is still
found in the ensuing June. After the next autumn moult the
back is still grey, but the feathers are more square-cut, showing
an approach to the adult form. The bill is white, like that of
the old birds. When the birds are two years old the adult
plumage is assumed, but it seems probable that, as is the case
with C. glacialis, the birds do not breed in their first nuptial
dress. Professor Collett has found that, in addition to fresh-
moulted feathers, some of the adult plumes are donned by a
recoloration of the actual feather. For further details of the
characters of C. adanisi the reader is referred to the paper
itself

Rang-e in Great Britain. — That C. adanisi occurs more fre-
quently off the British coasts than is usually supposed, is very
probable, and now that attention has been called to the species,
it will doubtless be found that many examples exist in collec-

1S4 Allen's naturalist's library.

tions which have hitherto been supposed to be Great Northern
Divers. The specimens actually recognised as British are, as
yet, few, one from Pakenham, in Norfolk, being in Mr.
Gurneys collection; another from Suffolk recorded by the late
])r. Babington ; while a third is in the Newcastle Museum, from
the coast of Northumberland.

Range outside the British Islands. — The White-billed Diver is
believed to inhabit the whole of Arctic Russia and Siberia to the
islands of Bering Sea and Alaska, down to Japan in winter ;
and Mr. Saunders believes that it is this species, and not
C. giacialis, which is found in Jan Mayen Island, Spitsbergen,
and Novaya Zemlya. The si)ecies was found by Norden-
skjold, during the " Vega " expedition, breeding on Tschuktschi-
kind, and Professor Collett believes that it visits the coasts
of the North Sea in winter, coming from Siberia; he has
examined several specimens from Norway. It also appears,
like C. glacialis and other Divers, to visit inland waters, as
Ritter Tschusi zu Schmidhoffen records it from Hungary. In
North America it is found in the Arctic Regions to the west
of Hudson's Bay, going south in winter, and occurring on the
Great Lakes.

Habits. — These are supposed to be similar to those of
C. glacialis, but little has been recorded on the subject.
Professor Collett says that some of the Norwegian specimens
were caught in nets in which they had been entangled when
diving. The largest male in the University Museum at
Christiania, from the Porsanger Fjord, was taken on a hook
which was laid at a depth of about fifteen fathoms. In the
specimens dissected by him, the stomach was filled with remains
of fishes, and had a quantity of gravel in it. One contained
an example of a full grown female, filled with roe, of Coitus
scorpius. Dr. Stejneger, who found the species a rare winter
visitant in the Commander Islands, obtained a specimen
in a rather curious manner. He says : — " It w^as found sitting
on the smooth ice of Lake Saranna (25th of November, 1882),
unable to run upon or lift itself from the glib surface. It evi-
dently had mistaken the transparent and shining ice for open
water." Von Tschusi relates a similar mis'ake on the part
of a flock of Coots, Fulica aira, L. (cf. J. f. O., 1874,

Black-throated diver. 185

p. 343). Mr. Nelson, in his *' Natural History Collections of
Alaska," writes : — " During a sledge journey along this coast
fragments of the skin were seen, usually comprising the skin of
the neck divided, and with the beak in front, and thus fastened
as a fillet about the head, the long white beak projecting from
the wearer's brow. Fillets made of this bird's skin in the same
manner are commonly used by the natives of the coat just
named, and about Kotzebue Sound. They are worn during
certain religious dances held in winter, and are esteemed highly
by the natives, from some occult power they are supposed to
possess."

Nest. — The only record of the finding of the nest of the
White- billed Diver, is that of Palander, during the voyage of
the " Vega." He shot the female from the nest, on the 3rd of
July, 1879, at Pitlekai, on the Tschuktschi Peninsula.

Egg. — Like that of Colymbus glacialis. Axis, 37 inches;
diam. 2*2.

III. THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER. COLYMBUS ARCTICUS.

Colymbus arcficus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 221 (1766); Macgill.
Brit. B. v. p. 294 (1852) ; Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 615, pi.
627 (1876); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 201 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 105 (1884);
Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 407 (1885); Saunders,
Man. Brit. B. p. 697 (1889).

Adult Male. — General colour above glossy black, spangled
with white sub-terminal bars on the scapulars, very broad and
distinct ; on each side of the mantle a second longitudinal
patch of white, formed by broad sub-terminal bars to the
feathers ; remainder of the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts
black ; wing-coverts black, with twin spots of white on the
median and greater series ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts,
quills and tail black ; head and neck dove-grey, slightly more
slaty-grey on the forehead and region of the eye ; sides ot face
and ear-coverts sooty-grey ; throat purple, brighter on the
lower throat, the margin of which is abruptly defined on the
fore-neck. Across the middle of the throat a band of white
streaks, varied with eight streaks of black ; sides of lower

1 86 Allen's naturalist's library.

throat equally streaked with black and white, the black streaks
very broad and extending to the sides of the neck ; remainder
of under surface of body from the fore-neck downwards pure
white ; the sides of the fore-neck and chest narrowly streaked
with black and white; sides of the body glossy-black, the
longer under tail-coverts black with white tips; under wing-
coverts and axillaries white, the outer lower primary-coverts
externally ashy ; bills black ; feet blackish ; iris crimson.
Total length, 22*0 inches; culmen, 2*2; wing, ii*8; tail, 2'i ;
tarsus, 2*9.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 21-0
inches ; wing, 11 "5.

Winter Plumage. — Similar to that of the Great Northern
Diver, but distinguished by the much smaller bill.

Range in Great Britain. — The Black-throated Diver breeds in
the north of Scotland and in the Orkneys, but is not known
from the Shetlands. It nests not uncommonly in Sutherland-
shire and Caithness, and breeds also in the lochs of Inverness-
shire, Perthshire, Ross, and Argyll, as well as in many of the
Outer Hebrides (cf. Saunders' Manual, p. 698). In winter
it visits all the coasts of the British Islands, but is rarer
than the other species of Diver, and mostly young birds are
procured.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species has a
circumpolar distribution during the breeding season, nesting
in the northern areas of both hemispheres, and migrating
south in winter to the inland waters of Europe and the
Mediterranean and in the east to Japan. At the last-named
season it also extends its range to the Northern United
States. It is not as yet known to occur in Greenland or
Iceland.

Habits. — During the breeding season the Black-throated
Diver frequents lochs and inland waters. In Norway it is by
no means uncommon on the lakes of the higher fjelds, but
the bird is not much in evidence during the day-time, though
in the very early morning they were seen at Alfheim (1896)
close to the house, swimming about in the lake, and making
a considerable cackling. In the evening, as the days began

V

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ill \

'i

V

v»

\0

^^

i

t' f>m>!A

-1/

RED-THROATED DIVER. 1 87

to close in at the end of July, the pair of birds which fre-
quented our lake, used to take long flights overhead, flying at
a tremendous rate with their long necks outstretched^ and
looking, in the dim twilight, like large Ducks.

Mr. Ogilvie Grant writes to me : — " As far as I have
observed in Scotland, the habits of the Black-throated Diver
are quite similar to those of the Red-throated Diver, on
which I send you a note, but C. ardicus never breeds on
the small lochs. All the nests I have seen have been placed
on the sloping banks of islands in the larger lochs, where trout
are to be caught in plenty."

Nest, — When in the water itself, the nest is simply made of
dead grass and water-plants, but when on land there is no
nest at all, or simply a few pieces of fresh sedge.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour clay-brown or
olive-brown, sometimes light or very dark chocolate brown.
The black spots are scattered over the whole surface, and are
equally distributed, the underlying spots being black or greyish-
black, and scarcely to be distinguished from the overlying
ones. The dimensions of the eggs — axis, 3'2-3"5 inches;
diam., 1*9-2 '2 — overlap those of the Great Northern Diver, so
that large eggs of C. arcHcus cannot be distinguished from
small ones of'C glacialis. Too much care, therefore, cannot
be taken in their identification.

IV. THE RED-THROATED DIVER. COLYRIBUS SEPTENTRIONALIS,

Colymbiis septentrionalis^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 220 (1766)
Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 301 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur
viii. p. 621, pi. 628 (1876); B. O. U. List Brit. B
p. 202 (1883) ; Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv
p. 112 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 412 (1885) ;
Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 699 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig.
Brit. B. part xviii. (1891).

{Plate CXIV.)

Adult Male.— General colour above ashy-brown, with an oily
green gloss, the feathers rather blacker in the centre, and
sparsely spotted or edged with white, these spots less distinct

155 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

on the lower back, rump, and uppsr tail-coverts, which are
ahnost uniform ; the back of the neck plentifully streaked
with white and black, the green gloss on the latter being very
distinct ; wing-coverts brown, rather more distinctly edged
and spotted with white ; quills and tail blackish ; crown of
head and neck grey, obscurely mottled with dusky stripes on
the former ; the nape and hind-neck very distinctly streaked
with black and white ; sides of face, throat, and sides of neck
clear slaty-grey, with a long triangular ])atch of vinous chestnut
reaching from the lower throat to the fore-neck ; remainder
of under surface of body white; the upper fore-neck and sides
of chest streaked with black; sides of the body blackish,
slightly spotted with white ; the lower flanks and thighs sooty
brown ; under tail-coverts sooty-brown with white tips ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries white, the latter with dark shaft
markings ; bill black ; legs and feet greenish black ; iris
hazel. Total length, 23*5 inches; culmen, 2-1; wing, io'q;
tail, 1-8 ; tarsus, 2-65.

Adult Female.^Similar in plumage to the male. Total length,
21-5 inches; wing, io*8.

Winter Plumage. — Slaty-grey above, profusely speckled with
white in the form of twin spots on the feathers, which
are much smaller on the mantle, lower back, rump, and
upper tail-coverts ; the head and neck greyer and thickly
streaked with narrow lines of dull white ; lores, sides of face,
and under surface of body white, mottled with black centres
to the feathers on the sides of the fore-neck and chest ; the
sides of the body and flanks slaty-black, mottled and edged
with white ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white, with
dusky brown centres along the latter; the lower primary
coverts externally ashy.

Young Birds in Winter Plumage. — May generally be distinguished
by a few dusky freckled edges to the feathers of the lower
throat and sides of neck.

Nestling.— Covered with sooty-brown down, paler on the
under-surface, which becomes white as the bird grows older.

Characters. — The very different summer plumage distinguishes
the Red-throated from the Blue-throated Diver in the breeding

RED-THROATED DIVER. 189

season. The speckled upper surface of the body and the
dusky streaks on the axillaries distinguish C. septeiitrioiialis in
winter.

Range in Great Britain. — This species breeds in Scotland from
Argyleshire northwards, as well as in the Hebrides and the
Orkney and Shetland Isles. " In Ireland," says Mr. Ussher,
" one or two pairs have been discovered to breed on mountain
lakes in Donegal, but as their eggs are regularly taken for
collectors, the birds, if not so already, will soon be driven
away. A pair may have bred in Sligo (Zool. 1890, p. 352)."
In winter the Red-throated Diver is found on all the coasts of
Great Britain, and not only ascends estuaries, but is sometimes
observed far inland.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species has a
circumpolar distribution during the breeding season, and has
been found as far north as 82° N. lat. In winter it visits the
Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, and in Eastern Asia
is known to occur in Japan, China, and Formosa. In America
it migrates in winter across nearly the whole of the United
States.

Habits. — I am indebted to my friend, Mr. W. R. Ogilvie
Grant, for the following interesting note on the species : —
" In the north of Scotland I have, on many occasions, had
opportunities of watching the breeding habits of the Red-
throated Diver, and in May of 1896 I spent several whole days in
observing the behaviour of a pair who had a nest with two
partially incubated eggs on the edge of a small loch. This
species almost invariably selects the small desolate lochs,
often mere pools, situated in the more lonely and deserted
parts, for purposes of nidification. In the north of Suther-
land, where the country is a mass of lochs of every size and
shape, there is much ground eminently suited to the habits
of this Diver, but for some reason only a few scattered pairs
avail themselves of this fine tract of country. The two eggs
are always placed close to the water's edge, either on the
margin of the loch, or on some tiny islet where the bank rises
at a very gentle slope above the surface of the water. These
birds are so curiously constructed — the legs being placed so
far back on the long boat-shaped body — that, though admirably

TQO ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

adapted for an aquatic life, they are apparently incapable of
standing upright on land. When leaving the water to gain
the nest, the bird lies on its belly, and slowly pushes itself up
the gently-sloping peat or turf bank by using its legs alternately.
Generally there are two distinct short ' runs ' leading from the
nest to the water, doubtless made by the bodies of the birds
being dragged over the soft, wet ground as they change places
during the period of incubation. The nest is merely a slight
hollow in the wet bank pressed down by the body of the bird,
sometimes imperfectly lined with a few bits of dead grass. On
one occasion, being anxious, if possible, to secure the parent
birds without shooting them, two carefully concealed gins were
placed under the water just at the end of the ' runs,' so that it
seemed an absolute certainty that the sitting bird must be
caught by the legs either in going to or leaving the nest. This
plan, however, utterly failed. Being hidden a couple of
hundred yards off, we watched the female bird (for it was her
turn on the nest) through the glass. Three times she settled
herself comfortably on the eggs, and as many times we
frightened her off. But on each occasion she passed over the
traps without touching them, though the depth of water could
not have been more than two inches. On leaving the nest
the parent bird glides gracefully and quietly into the water,
and, if danger has been sighted, almost instantly dives, with
scarcely a ripple, re-appearing at a considerable distance from
the nest. If the cause of uneasiness is near at hand, the body
is sunk in the water till little more than the head and neck
are visible, and it may easily be imagined that in rough water
ihe birds are most difficult to see, even with the help of
the glass.

"When unconscious of danger, the Divers float and dive and
preen themselves much like Ducks, often raising themselves to
semi-erect positions in the water, and flapping their wings.
Some of the attitudes assumed by them when dressing their
feathers are very curious. When preening the feathers of the
sides and flanks, the birds turn half over, shewing the whole of
the white sides of the breast and belly, and when sorting the
feathers of the breast, they turn right over on their backs and
float.

" This species differs from the Black-throated Diver in one

RED-THROATED DIVER. I9I

particular, for it seldom, if ever, procures its food in the small
lochs where it breeds.

"As a rule these pools are devoid of trout, and consequently,
though one of the birds may frequently be seen swimming
about while the other is engaged in hatching the eggs, all the
fish are procured in the large lochs, which are sometimes a
considerable distance away. Like the rest of its kind, the
Red-throated Diver cannot rise very quickly from the water,
but flaps along the surface for some distance before it gains
sufficient impetus to be able to fly. When once on the wing
and well under weigh, it travels at a great pace, the flight being
very much like that of a duck. If disturbed from their nest the
birds circle for some time high over the loch, the male uttering
his hoarse cry, kork, kork, kork, kork, as he passes overhead, the
sound reminding one somewhat of that of an old cock Grouse.

"It is marvellous how easily Divers may be overlooked on
the water, especially when the surface is rough. I have often
glassed a lock carefully from a distance of about a quarter of a
mile, and been able to make out nothing, but on a nearer
approach have found it to be tenanted by a pair of Divers.
The keen vision of these birds evidently enables them to sight
any suspicious object at a considerable distance, and we proved
this to our satisfaction in the summer of '96. A hen sitting
on her nest at a distance of several hundred yards, instantly
detected an incautious movement of the top of my head,
which was the only part of my body visible.

"It may be worth while to add that a thoroughly trust-
worthy keeper in Sutherland assures me that a pair of Red-
throated Divers, which we had watched together in the early
summer of 1896, eventually bred among the heather at a con-
venient distance f?'oni the neai-est pool. The shells of the two
eggs were not found by him until the young birds had hatched
off and were seen swimming, with the parents, in the loch hard
by. There is every reason to believe this keeper's stor}^, for he
has known these Divers and their ways all his life, and had
been trying hard to find the nest of this particular pair. If
these birds really bred on land, and I have no reason to doubt
the fact, the question is. How did they manage to alight on
the ground, and, more wonderful still, when once there, how-
did they manage to get on the wing ? "

192 Allen's naturalist's lidrary.

Nest. — Generally none, the eggs being laid upon the bare
ground. Occasionally a slight foundation of dead sedge, or a
little moss, is observable.

Eggs. — Two in number. Ground-colour dark olive, or dark
chocolate-brown, the latter sometimes so deep in tint that
the spots are scarcely discernible. Sometimes the eggs are
covered all over with small black dots, in other instances the
spots are larger and almost form blotches. On one egg in the
British Museum there is a large blotch of brown. The under-
lying spots are blackish, or greyish-black, and are about as
distinct as the overlying ones. Axis 2'6-3'o5 inches, diam.
vj-rg.

THE GREBES. ORDER PODICIPEDIDIFORMES.

The Grebes have the same remarkable projection of the cne-
mial process of the tibia as the Divers, and the same form of the
posterior process of the ilium described under the heading of the
last-mentioned birds. The palate is schizognathous, and the
cervical vertebrae are seventeen to twenty-one in number : the
anchylosed sacral vertebrae are preceded by a free vertebra, in
front of which are four anchylosed dorsal vertebrae ; the median
xiphoid process of the sternum is abruptly truncated, so that
the lateral processes extend behind it. The spinal feather
tract is not defined on the neck, and the ambiens and femoro-
caudal muscles are wanting.

The bill is long and pointed, and resembles that of the Divers,
from which the Grebes are at once distinguished by their lobed
toes, and by their obsolete tail, which is not visible.

THE TIPPETED GREBES. GENUS LOPILETHYIA.

Lophaithyia^ Kaup. Nat. Syst. p. 72 (1829).

Type, L. cristata (Linn.).

Although I cannot follow the conclusions of my American

colleagues in their determination of the generic names of

Colymbus for the Grebes, and Urinator for the Divers, I must

admit that their conclusion that the Little Grebe {Podicipes

minor, auct.), must be considered to be the type of the genus

Podicipes^ seems to me to be indubitable.

GREBES. 193

The genus Fodiceps {potius Podicipes), was founded by
Latham, in 1790, and there is nothing in his characters to
indicate any individual species as the type of his genus. The
lobed feet, which he recognises as a character, are pecuhar to
all Grebes, and therefore the type of the genus can only be
assured by elimination. The history of Latham's genus can,
therefore, be traced as follows : —

Latham, 1790.

Lophaithyia, Kaup, 1829 ...Podiceps cristatus.

„ cayanus (ex Bodd. PI.
Ent. 404, fig. i).
Proctopus^ Kaup, 1829 ... „ auritus (nee Linn.) =

P. nigricGllis^ Brehm.

!,, obscurus ) _ r>

cornutus \ ~ ^\ aurms,

Linn,
caspicus

Podethyia, Kaup, 1829 ... ,, rubricollis=P. griseigena,

'Bodd.

,, thomensis (ex Briss. Orn.

vi. p. 58).

Podiceps, Kaup, 1829 ... .,., minor.

;, dominions.

,, hebridicus (= P. minor,

sup}\:).

Podilymbus, Less, 1831 ... „ carolinensis.

,, ludovicianus.

Kaup, in 1829, split up the genus Podicipes, and fixed
P. ininor as the type, dividing the other Grebes under separate
generic headings. I do not at present see any appeal from his
decision, much as I regret the necessity of having to adopt his
name Lophcethyia for the larger European species.

As with the Divers, the habits of one Grebe are very like those
of another, and it is consequently difficult to say anything
that is new about their mode of life. They are all but cosmo-
politan in their range.

The genus Lophcethyia is distinguished from the smaller
Grebes by the length of the bill, which is pointed, and measures
from the gape more than the length of the inner toe and claw.
15 o

194 ALLEN'S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

L THE GREAT CRESTED GREF-E. LOrH/ETHYL\ CRTSTATA.

Colymbiis cristatits, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 222(1766).

Podiceps cristatus, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 250 (1852); Dresser,
B. Eur. viii. p. 629, pi. 629 (1879) ; B. O. U. List Brit. 11
p. 202 (1883) ; Saundeis, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. n 7
(1884); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 445 (1885);
Lilford, Col. Pig. Brit. B. part xviii. (1891).

Podidpes cristafns, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 701 (1889).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumag-e. — General colour above black,
the feathers with obscure brown edges ; scapulars and wing-
coverts like the back, the lesser series forming a white band along
the carpal edge of the wing; quills also blick, the secondaries
white, the inner ones white, externally more or less brown, and
the innermost secondaries like the back ; tail blackish ; crown
of head black, expanding into a crest or tuft of long plumes on
each side of the nape; the lores white with a reddish tinge,
continued in a narrow line over the eye; the sides of the
crown, sides of face, fore-part of cheeks and ear-coverts,
white ; sides of hinder crown, hind part of ear-coverts and
cheeks, orange-chestnut, tipped with black, forming a very
wide frill, which nearly meets on the throat; entire under-
surface of body silky white, with a tinge of vinous chestnut on
the fore-neck and sides of body, the latter mottled with
blickish centres to the feathers; under wing-coverts and
axillaries white; "bill red ; the bare space between the eye and
the base of the bill blackish ; legs and feet olive-green ; iris
crimson" (H. Seebohm). Total length, 20 inches ; culmen, 2*2 :
wing, 7 '2 ; tail, I'G ; tarsus, 2-4.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but slightly smaller.
Total length, 18 inches; wing, 6"9.

Winter Plumage. — The colour of the back and of the under-
surface is much the same as in the summer plumage, but is a
little greyer, and there is no ruddy tinge on the sides of the
body, which are dusky brown. The wings are also the same
at both seasons of the year. The red tippet, however, is lost,
and the crown of the head is blackish, but the lateral crest is
indicated by elongated feathers extending to each side of the
nape ; lores and a streak over the eye, white. In a male

GREAT CRESTED GREBE. 1 95

procured by Colonel Feilden in the Yarmouth market on the
2nd of November, there are signs of rufous and black on the
sides of the neck, but whether these are remains of the last
breeding-plumage, or the commencement of the next one, is
difficult to determine. I believe them to be the last remains
of the breeding-dress.

Young in First Winter. — Resemble the winter plumage of the
adults, but have broad white and black streaks on the sides of
the head, one black line along the ear coverts and another
below the eye being especially distinct. Seebohm says that
these stripes on the head are moulted during the first autumn,
when the bird resembles the winter plumage of the adult, but
a specimen in the Hume collection, procured near Delhi on
the 14th of January, not only shows these stripes very
distinctly, but is also commencing to don the red tippet. The
ornamental plumes worn by the young birds during their first
spring are neither so large nor so bright as in old individuals.

Young.— Brown ; the head, neck, and under-surface of the
body white, with longitudinal black stripes on the upper parts
and on the breast, two transverse stripes across the bill, and a
grey patch on the sides of the head.

Characters. — The peculiar red tippet and white face, as well
as the red bill, distinguish this species in summer plumage, as
well as the larger size. Z. gj'tseigena, which might be con-
founded with it in winter plumage, is recognised by the want
of the white eye-stripe.

Range in Great Britain. — The Great Crested Grebe breeds in
some of the open meres of England, such as the Norfolk
Broads, and certain lakes in Leicestershire, Yorkshire, Shrop-
shire, Cheshire, Lancashire, and Breconshire. Its most
northerly breeding range in Great Britain appears to be in the
neighbourhood of the Clyde, where Mr. Robert Read has
discovered its nest. In winter it is shot on most of our
coasts. Mr. R. J. Ussher states that in Ireland it "breeds on
lakes, large and small, in Antrim, Down, Armagh,' Monaghan,
Fermanagh, Longford, Westmeath, King's and Queen's
Counties, Clare, Gal way, Roscommon, Sligo, and Leitrim.
Several pairs inhabit some of the larger lakes."

o 2

T96 Allen's naturalist's library.

Rang-e outside the British Islands. — The present species is
found over the greater part of the Old World, breeding in
most countries of Europe and the Mediterranean basin, as far
north as the Baltic provinces, Denmark, and Southern Sweden,
across Siberia to Japan and China, and south to Australia and
New Zealand. It occurs in winter throughout the Indian
Peninsula in localities suited to its habits, but the African
Great Crested Grebe seems to be different, and is known as
Lophcelhyia infuscata (Salvad). It has not been recorded from
any part of North America.

Habits. — Open waters are the principal localities affected by
this Grebe during the breeding season, when its nest may
be found far from the shore, a floating mass among the
reeds. When the nest is approached, the birds generally swim
away at a great rate, almost as fast as a boat can pursue them,
and, on the latter appearing to gain on them, they take refuge
in diving, seldom taking wing, though when called upon they
are birds of strong flight, and fly with necks outstretched like
a duck or a diver. Seebohm writes : — " Its food is entirely
procured in the water, and consists of water-beetles and other
aquatic insects, small fish, small frogs and molluscs. The
seeds and tender shoots of aquatic plants are also often found
in its stomach ; but instead of small stones or gravel, numbers
of its own feathers, plucked from the ventral region, are mixed
with its food. It is not known that this curious habit, which
is more or less common to all the Grebes, is intended to assist
digestion, but it has been remarked by many ornithologists in
widely different localities — Nauman (father and son), Meves
(father and son), Yarrell, Thompson, Macgillivray, &c. Its
ordinary alarm-note is a loud, clear kek^ kek ;\>vX at the pairing-
time another note, the call-note, may be heard— a loud,
grating, guttural sound, like the French word croix.

"The Great Crested Grebe is decidedly a gregarious bird.
When I was stopping at Stolp, in Pomerania, in 1882, Dr.
Holland was kind enough to pilot me to the Lantow See,
a lake about four square miles in extent, and surrounded on
three sides by pine forests. At one end of the lake was a
large bed of reeds, and as we rowed towards it we saw quite a
little fleet of Great Crested Grebes sail out. It was a most

GREAT CRESTED GREBE.

97

beautiful sight ; there may have been thirty or forty of them.
Every now and then one or two dived out of sight; occasionally
a pair or two took wing ; and by-and-by the rest flew away
together, and, wheeling round, settled in the middle of the
lake. Although it was the 30th of May the reeds had not
attained a fourth of their ultimate height, and the Grebes had
only just begun to breed. Many nests were empty, many
contained only a single egg, and none of them contained more
than two. Although the nests were exposed to the bird's-eye
view of a passing Crow, on account of the smallness of the
reeds, none of the eggs were covered.

" A week afterwards I found a very large colony of Great
Crested Grebes on the Garda See, a lake close to the sea,
about sixty miles west of the Gulf of Danzig. They were
breeding in an immense reed-bed, and as our boat neared
their nesting-grounds we saw the Grebes sailing majestically,
not to say indignantly, out of the side of the reed-bed. As
soon as we reached the place I put on my waders and was
soon in a dense forest of reeds, where it was very easy to lose
one's way. The water was above my knees, and the reeds
were far above my head. After stopping to take the nest of a
Great Sedge-Warbler with four eggs^ I soon found the colony
of Grebes. There were dozens of nests, biu never very close
to each other, and I soon filled my handkerchief with eggs.
It was the 5th of June, and only about half the nests contained
the full complement of eggs. The birds had evidently seen us
long before we approached, and had had ample time to retreat
with dignity. In the nests which contained three or four eggs,
they were warm and covered with damp moss ; but in those
containing only one or two they were uncovered and cold.
This applied equally to the nests on the outskirts of the reeds,
where the eggs could be seen by a passing Crow, and to those
hidden in the depths of the reed-bed. The natural inference is
that the eggs are not covered until the female begins to sit.
and that the object of covering them is not protective, at least
in the technical sense in which that word is used. The Grebes
cover their eggs, not to conceal them from enemies, but to
protect them from cold. In the recesses of a dense reed-
bed white eggs are as inconspicuous as in a hole in a tree or
in a bank."

igo ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

Nest. — A floating mass of weeds. The one discovered by
Mr. Robert Read in Renfrewshire, in 1889, was built, he tells
me, "amongst the rank herbage of a floating island, although
the nest was not actually in the water like that of a Little
Grebe. It contained three eggs, and, though they were about
a week incubated, they were not covered up."

Eggs. — Three or four in number. Greenish white, with a
chalky covering, but as incubation proceeds they become
stained, through contact with the decomposing weeds of which
the nest is made, an ochreous or brown colour. Axis, 2' 1-2 "45
inches; diam., i '4-1 -55.

II. THE RED-NECKED GREBE. LOPH.ETHYIA GRISEIGENA.

Colymbus griseigetia, Bodd. Tabl. PI. Enl. p. 55 (1783).
Podiceps riihricoUis^ Lath.; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 259 (1852);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 459 (1885).
Podiceps griseigena, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 639, pi. 630

(1878); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 203 (1883); Saunders,

ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 124 (1884) ; Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xxvi. (1893).
Podicipes griseigeiia, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 703 (18S9).

Adult. — General colour above black, v>'ith a few remains of
brown edgings to some of the feathers ; wings blackish, with
the lesser series white along the carpal bend of the wing;
primaries black, the secondaries pure white, the innermost being
blackish like the back ; tail black ; crown of head and hind-
neck glossy-black, with a greenish gloss, the feathers on the
hinder crown developed into a hood ; sides of face, ear-coverts,
and throat light slaty-grey, with a streak of white running from
the angle of the mouth below the eye, above the ear-coverts
and skirting the hinder edge of the latter, where the vv'hite
broadens, but does not cross the throat ; lower throat, sides of
neck, and entire fore-neck, rich chestnut ; remainder of under
surAice of body silky white, the sides of the body chestnut,
with dusky blackish tips to the feathers ; vent brownish ; under
wing-coverts and axillaries, pure white ; '• bill black, but the
lower mandible and the sides of the upper mandible yellow at
the base ; bare space between the eyes and the base of the bill

RED-NECKED GREBE. 199

reddish-black ; legs and feet dull green, darkest on the joints ;
iris, brownish-red" {Seebohm). Total length, 15-5 inches;
culmen, 1-4; wing, 6-3; tail, 1-3; tarsus, 1-9.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male, but slightly smaller.
Total length, 15 inches; wing, 6-o.

Winter Plumage.-— Differs in the want of all the ornamental
plumes, the upper surface being blackish, with browner edges
to the feathers ; crown of head and neck blackish-brown, as
also the lores and the sides of the crown ; sides of face and
under surface of body white, with the neck ruddy-brown, as
well as the sides of the upper breast ; the sides of the body
and flanks spotted with dusky-brown.

Young in Down.— Upper parts dark brown, striped with white
on the head and neck, and with pale-brown on the back \ the
under parts white, striped and spotted on the throat with dark
brown {Seebo/un).

Characters.— Adult birds are recognised from the three suc-
ceeding species by their larger size. The species cannot be
confounded with L. cristata m summer phmiage, as it has the
face and throat grey without any rufous tippet.

In winter dress the two species are very much alike, but the
want of the white lores and eyebrow distinguishes L. griseigena
in winter and immature plumage from the corresponding stages
of Z. cristata.

Range in Great Britain.— The Red-necked Grebe is princiijally
a winter visitor to our eastern coasts, and is rarely found on the
western side of England and Scotland, and has only occurred
some half-dozen tunes in Ireland. It is likewise seen on
the southern shores of England, but more sparingly than on
the eastern ones, though it is said to be not unfrequently met
with in Cornwall.

Range outside the British Islands.— The present species breeds
throughout Russia from Archangei to the Caspian and Black
Seas, lis far east as l^u'kestan, and westwards in the Baltic and
Northern Germany to the South of Norway. To other parts of
Europe it is a migrant, but Colonel Irby has seen young speci-
mens from Marocco, and believes that they were reared in that
country. In North America L. griseigena is replaced by a

200 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

slightly larger form, L. Jiolboelli, which ranges from Greenland
westwards, and occurs in Eastern Siberia, varying south in
winter to Japan and even reaching Turkestan, according to
Severtzoff. This form is very doubtfully distinct from Z.
griseigena. It has a wing of 7 •2-8*2 inches, whereas the wing
of Z. griseigena varies from 6'o-y3 inches ; thus it will be seen
that the dimensions of the wing in these two forms overlap.

Habits. — Seebohm, who had opportunities of studying this
species in its native habits, writes : — " In North Germany it is
a very common bird, arriving late in March or early in April,
and leaving again in October. It is almost exclusively an in-
habitant of lakes and ponds, where sedge or reeds abound.
On small ponds solitary pairs are found, but on the larger
lakes great numbers breed together, though the nests are
scattered up and down amongst the reeds, and not clustered
together in a colony. The nests are sometimes placed in the
recesses of the thick reed-beds, but quite as often they can be
seen at a considerable distance in localities where the reeds are
only half-grown and thinly sprinkled over the water. The nest
is always floating, so that it can rise or fall with the water, and
is considerably less than that of the Coot. It is somewhat
carelessly made of reeds and decayed water-plants, and near
each nest is a sort of sham nest, or foundation of a nest,
merely a few reeds laid together, which is used as a roosting-
place for the parent which, for the time being, is not occupied
with the incubation of the eggs. Fresh eggs may be obtained
during the first half of May. When the third egg is laid the
bird begins to sit ; but it is ever on the look-out for danger,
and long before the nest can be discovered, the approach of an
intruder has been observed, the eggs have been carefully
covered with black weeds to keep them warm, and the bird
may be seen apparently feeding at a distance, looking as inno-
cent and unconscious as possible."

Nest. — Made, like those of other Grebes, of reeds and de-
cayed water-plants.

Eg^s. — Three or four in number. Greenish-white, covered
with a chalky substance when fresh, but becoming discoloured
to a buff or brown shade. Axis i •85-2-15 inches, diameter
t'3-i"4-

^

SLAVONIAN GREBE. 201

THE HORNED GREBES. GENUS BYTES.

Dytes, Kaup. Natiirl. Syst. p. 49 (1829).

Type D. auritus (Linn.).

The Horned Grebes have the bill shorter than in the Great

Crested Grebes, the length of the bill from the gape being

less than that of the inner toe and claw. The form of

the bill, too, is stouter and rather more curved at the tip. The

tippet, too, is more dense and entirely black, and extends over

the entire throat, the feathers of which are full, the black tippet

being surmounted by a band of crested plumes along the

sides of the crown from the eye, forming a crest.

I. THE SLAVONIAN GREBE. DYTES AURITUS.

Colyinbus auritus^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 222(1766).

Podiceps corjiutiis, Gm. ; Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 264 (1852);

Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 462 (1885).
Podiceps auritus, Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 645, pi, 631 (1879);

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 203 (1883); Saunders, ed.

Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 128 (1884); Lilford, Col. Fig.

Brit. B. part xxvii. (1893).
Podicipes auritus, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 705 (1889).
{Plate CXr.)
Adult Male. — General colour above black, slightly varied with
greyish edges to the feathers ; wing-coverts ashy-brown, as also
the quills, the primaries with dusky blackish tips, the second-
aries pure white, the innermost secondaries black like the
back ; tail black ; crown of head black, the hind-neck brown-
ish black ; the sides of the face and upper throat black, the
feathers on the posterior part of the face being very long, and
forming a frill round the back of the head, which is further
ornamented by a broad superciliary band of chestnut feathers,
rather paler and more tawny above the eye, this superciliary
band produced backwards on the sides of the nape so as to
form a dense tuft of horn-like plumes ; the lower throat, fore-
neck, as well as the sides of the body, deep vinous chestnut,
the feathers of the latter slightly varied with dusky blackish
tips, the feathers near the vent also dusky brown ; remainder
of under surface of body silky white ; under wing-coverts and

2C2 ALLEN S NATURALISI'S LIBRARY.

axillaries pure white; "bill black, crimson at the tip and at
the base of the under mandible ; bare space between the eyes
and the base of the bill crimson ; legs and feet olive-green,
palest on the webs ; iris crimson " {Seebohni). Total length,
1 2*0 inches; culmen, 0-9; wing, 5-5 ; tail, i-6; tarsus, i'8.

Mr. E. VV. Nelson says that specimens obtained by him near
Nulato, in Alaska, had the eyes of the following brilliant
colours : — "The ball of the eye white ; a bright scarlet areola
around the outer edge of the iris, which latter is defined by a
white line. The iris proper is bright crimson, with its inner
edge brilliant white shaded with pink. The pupil consists of
a central black spot, with a broad ring of dark purple."

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 11*5
inches ; wing, 5-6.

Winter Plumage. — General colour above blackish, slightly
shaded with grey on the edges of the feathers ; the head devoid
of ornamental plumes ; crown and neck black, the feathers of
the former a little full towards the nape ; lores and sides of
crown to the line of the eye black ; throat white, like the side
of the face, and extending on to the sides of the neck ; re-
mainder of under surface of body silky-white, with a little
dusky brown on the lower throat below the line of the tippet,
which is indicated by the white feathers of the throat and face ;
sides of neck blackish-brown ; sides of body mottled with
greyish-black tips to the feathers; "bill dark horny, pinkish
towards the base, paler at the tip ; tarsi and feet pearly-grey,
outer sides of tarsi, outer toe, and joints blackish ; iris blood-
red " ( JV. R. Ogilvie Grant):^

Young Birds in Winter. — Resemble the adults, but are much
browner, especially on the flanks and lower abdomen ; sides
of face dusky-white, not pure white as in the adults ; feathers
under the eyes and lores black ; feet, in dried skin, with a good
deal of yellow abotit the toes.

Characters. —The old birds arc distinguished from the other
British Grebes by the black head and tippet, the tawny chestnut
bands forming the crest on each side of the crown, and the
deep chestnut throat and fore-neck. In winter the resem-

* On the changes of pluma|^e m this sjDecics, cf. J. G. Millais, Ibis,
1896, pp. 454-457-

SLAVONIAN GREBE 203

blance between D. auritits and P. nigricoUis is closer, but the
upturned bill of the latter and the white on the inner primaries
will almost distinguish it.

Range in Great Britain. — This Grebe is a winter visitor to Great
Britain, occurring on both east and wxst coasts of Scotland,
but in England and Ireland being much more seldom met with
on the west and south. On the east coast of England it is a
regular winter visitor.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Slavonian or Horned
Grebe nests throughout Northern Europe and Siberia, as well
as in Iceland. It also occurs throughout North America,
where it breeds from the United States northward. It nests
sparingly in Denmark, and ranges south over Europe in winter,
when it visits the Mediterranean, while at the latter season it
has been known to reach the Bermudas.

Habits. — The late Mr. Proctor, who visited Iceland in 1837,
has given the following account of the species : — " This bird
frequents the fresh waters, and nests amidst the reeds and other
rank herbage. The young birds, when first hatched, are
covered with grey-coloured down. No sooner does the old
bird perceive danger from any intruders than she instantly
dives and emerges at thirty or forty yards distance. One day
during my sojourn in Iceland, having seen one of these birds
dive from the nest, I placed myself with my gun at my
shoulder, waiting for its reappearance. As soon as it emerged,
I fired and killed it, and was surprised to see two young ones,
which it seems had been concealed beneath the wings of the
parent bird, drop upon the water. I afterwards shot several
other birds of this species, all of which dived with their young
under their wings. The young birds were placed with their
heads towards the tail, and their bills resting on the back of
the parent bird."

Seebohm relates that the well-known naturalist, Dr. Kriiper,
once found a nest, the eggs of which were highly incubated, and
listened to the cries of the female on the nest, while the male
attempted to frighten him away by suddenly rising out of the
water in front of him, splashing with his feet in the water, and
joining his cries to those of its mate. So persistent was it

204 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARV.

that Kill per returned to the shore for his butterfly-net, and
when the performance was repeated, caught the bird in it.

Nest. — Described by Proctor as large, floating on the surface
of the water, with which it rises and falls ; it is composed of a
mass of reeds and other aquatic plants. Dr. Kriiper states that
he has occasionally found the nest on a tussock of grass in the
water, and once on a stone.

Eggs. — From two to four in number, and sometimes, accord-
ing to Seebohm, five. They are not to be distinguished from
those of the Black-necked Grebe, and are of a greenish-white
colour with the usual chalky covering. Axis, i '65-1 "95 inch;
diam., i "2-1 "35.

THE EARED GREBES. GENUS PROCTOPUS.

Proctopiis, Kaup. Natiirl. Syst. p. 49 (1829).

Type, P. nigricollis (C. L. Brehm).

The shape of the bill, which is upturned at the end, instead
of being straight as in Dytes, distinguished the genus Proctopus
from the last-named genus. The bill is, moreover, depressed
at the base, being wider than it is deep ; whereas in Dytes the
contrary is the case, and the bill is deeper than it is wide at the
base. The ornamental tufts on the head also are hairy in
appearance rather than plumose, and spring from the region of
the ear-coverts.

L THE BLACK-NECKED GREBE. PROCTOPUS NIGRICOLLIS.

Podiceps nigricollis, C. L. Brehm, Vog. Deutschl. p. 693 (183 1) ;

Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 651, pi. 632 (1878); B. O. U.

List Brit. B. p. 204 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.

B. iv. p. 133 (1884) ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 465

(1885) ; Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xxv. (1893).
Podicei)s aiiritus^ Gm. (nee Linn.); Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 270

("1852).

Podicipes nigricoUis^ Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 707 {1889).

Adult Male in Breeding- Plumage.— General colour above black,
with a slaty gloss ; wing-coverts like the back ; quills sooty-
black, with darker ends to the primaries, the inner primaries

BLACK-NECKED GREBE. 205

with white on the inner webs, secondaries entirely white,
except the innermost, which are hke the back; tail black;
head and neck black, the crown having a frill composed of
elongated feathers; the ear coverts chestnut and composed of
elongated plumes, which are surmounted by a superciliary tuft
of similar elongated feathers of a golden straw-colour, this tuft
starting from the eye ; cheeks and entire throat black ;
remainder of under surface, from the fore-neck downwards,
silvery white ; the sides of the body slightly mottled with
blackish markings, and having also chestnut-tipped feathers,
especially developed on the sides of the rump ; under wing-
coverts and axillaries white ; " bill black ; bare space between
the eye and the base of the bill reddish-black ; legs and feet
olive-green, paler on the webs ; iris crimson " {Seehohm).
Total length, 12*0 inches ; culmen, 0-95 ; wing, 5*0 ; tail, 1-35 ;
tarsus, 17.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male. Total length, 1 1 inches ;
wing, 5-1.

Winter Plumage. — Blackish above, with slightly greyer edges
to the feathers ; head and neck blackish, as well as the lores and
feathers below and behind the eye ; sides of face, ear-coverts,
and under surface of body silky white, the sides of the body
mottled with ashy-blackish ends to the feathers ; sides of upper
neck white ; sides of lower neck dusky-brown, meeting across
the fore-neck and forming a collar ; wings dark brown, the
secondaries white, with the exception of the innermost, which
are white only on the inner web, the last ones being like the
back ; the inner primaries white along the inner web.

Characters. — In breeding plumage the Black-necked Grebe is
distinguished by the black fore-neck and chest, which resemble
the throat, though sometimes the chest shows a little rufous,
but never anything like the entirely chestnut chest of D. auritus.
The tuft of crest-feathers behind the eye is darker chestnut
and more hairy in texture. In winter plumage the up-turned
shape of the bill and the white on the inner primaries dis-
tinguish P. ntgricoHis, and the same characters may be
employed for the determination of immature birds.

Range in Great Britain. — The present species is a bird of
Southern Europe, and occurs more frequently in spring and

2O0 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LILkARV.

summer, being of rare occurrence in autumn and winter. It
is, therefore, more frequently met with on the south coast of
England, and on the east, while it is believed to have bred in
Norfolk, as the late E. T. Booth had an adult bird and two
nestlings brought to him by a marshman some years ago. On
the west coast of England, as well as in Scotland and Ireland,
the records of the capture of the species are less numerous.

Range outside the British Islands. — This species is an inhabitant
of Central and Southern Europe, nesting abundantly in most
of the countries of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and
being found in great numbers in Northern Africa. It appears
to nest in Abyssinia, and again in Southern Africa, both in
the Cape Colony and the Transvaal. It has been said to
breed in Denmark, and to have wandered as far north as
Iceland. In Asia it is met with over the temperate regions to
Korea and Japan, and in winter it is found in China, and has
also been procured by Mr. A. O. Hume on the Mekran coast
in February.

Habits. — The Black-necked Grebe is usually considered to
be a much shyer bird than the Slavonian Grebe, and seeks
safety in diving rather than by flight. Naumann describes its
note as a high soft, but far-sounding, beeh^ which, in the pairing
season, is rapidly repeated, and becomes a trill bidde7\ vidder^
vidder, vidder. The food and habits of this Grebe otherwise
resemble those of the other members of the f^imily.

Nest. — Made of reeds and rotten water-plants ; but, according
to Canon Tristram, they are in Algeria sometimes raised on
artificial islets, frequently almost touching each other, and
sometimes piled on stout foundations rising from more than a
yard under water. In Denmark, Mr. Benzon says that the
nests were made chiefly of moss, with which the female covers
up her eggs on leaving them. Mr. Thomas Ayres, who has
found this Grebe breeding in the Transvaal in December, says
that " the nest is found in shallow lagoons, in two or three feet
of water, among the rushes. The nests, which float on the
water, are formed of a mass of rushes about a foot in diameter,
and two or three inches out of the water. On leaving the
nest, the old bird always carefully covers the eggs with rushes,
and any person unacquainted with this habit would pass the

LITTLE GREBE.

207

nest as an unsiglitly heap of rotten wood. The eggs are often
much discoloured from being immersed in water; but this
does not appear in any way to injure them, or to prevent them
from hatching in the usual way."

Eggs. — Three to five in number. Greenish- white in colour,
with more or less of a chalky covering. Axis, i '65-1 '95 inches ;
diam., 1-15-1 '3.

THE LITTLE GREBES. GENUS PODICIPES.

Podiceps^ Kaup, Natiirl. Syst. p. 49 (1829); ex Lath. Ind. Orn.
ii. p. 780 (1790).

Type, P. flitviatilis (Tunst.).

In this genus the tarsus is shorter than the middle toe and
claw. All the species are of small size, and the distribution of
this genus is all but cosmopolitan.

\. THE LITTLE GREBE. PODICIPES FLUVIATILIS.

Colyvibus fluviatilis, Tunstall, Orn. Brit. p. 3 (177 i).
Sylbeocydus europceus, Macgill. Brit. B. v. p. 276 (1852).
Podiceps flnviatilis. Dresser, B. Eur. viii. p. 659, pi. 633 (1880);

Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iv. p. 137 (1884).
Tachybaptes fliiviatilis, B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 204 (1883).
Podiceps minor, Briss. ; Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. iii. p. 468

(1885); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B. part xx. (1891).
Podicipes fluviatilis, Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 709 (1889).

Adult Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above sooty
black, with a slight greenish gloss. The lower back and rump
somewhat browner ; wing-coverts and quills sooty brown ; the
secondaries with a good deal of white on them, sometimes
confined to the base or to the inner web, but sometimes also
occupying the whole of the latter, and even extending over the
greater part of the outer web as well ; tail rudimentary, con-
sisting of a tuft of soft black feathers ; crown of head and hind
neck sooty-black like the back, but more distinctly washed
with green ; lores, region of the eye, and sides of face sooty-
black, including the fore-part of the ear-coverts and cheeks ; the

2o8 Allen's naturalist's library.

hinder part of the latter, as well as the sides of the hinder
crown and entire sides of the neck, deep chestnut, extending
across the lower throat ; the chin and upper throat black, with
an indication of a narrow blackish line of feathers down the
chestnut portion of the throat ; fore-neck, breast, and sides of
body black ; the centre of the breast and abdomen blackish,
but overlaid with a silvery white gloss ; the lower flanks and a
patch on each side of the rump, cinnamon rufous, many of the
feathers tipped and black ; axillaries and under wing-coverts,
white ; quills below ashy, whitish at the base ; bill black, with
the tip yellowish, and the gape conspicuously greenish-yellow ;
bare spaces between the eye and the base of the bill blackish ;
legs and feet olive-green, paler on the webs ; iris hazel. Total
length, 8*5 inches ; culmen, I'o; wing, 4*0 ; tail, i"2 ; tarsus, i"3.

Adult Female in Breeding Plumag-e. — Resembles the male. Total
length, 8*o inches ; wing, 3 "9.

Winter Plumage. — General colour above brown, the wings a
little darker and more blackish, with the inner webs of the
secondaries entirely white ; crown of head and neck dark brown ;
lores and ear-coverts light brown, with a whity-brown streak
above the latter; sides of neck and the lower throat reddish-
brown ; cheeks and throat white ; remainder of under surface
of body silky white ; the sides of the body rufous-brown, with
dusky centres to the feathers.

Nestling. — General colour brown, with longitudual black and
rufous streaks down the back, the head less distinctly striped ;
under surface of body dingy white, with black and rufous
streaks on the throat and sides of neck.

Young in first Winter. — Similar to the winter plumage of the
adult, but generally with dusky streaks on the sides of the face.

Range in Great Britain. — The Little Grebe is found every-
where in localities suited to its habits, though it is rarer towards
Scotland and the North generally. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher
says, it is reported from every county, and it breeds commonly
throughout the country, in suitable localities, on lakes, ponds,
and rivers.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is an
inhabitant of temperate Europe and Asia, and Japan. It does

LITTLE GREBE. 2og

not range very far north in Europe, reaching to 62° in Scan-
dinavia, and it winters in the countries of the Mediterranean,
as there are specimens in the British Museum from Marocco,
Egypt, Palestine, and Asia Minor ; it doubtless also breeds in
these southern habitats. In China it is represented by an
allied form, Podicilcs philippemis^ wh'ch breeds in China, and
winters in the south in the Philippines, being replaced in the
Moluccas by Fodicipes tricolor. In India a white-quilled
species takes its place, Fodicipes alhipeiinis, while the African
Little Grebe, Fodiciprs capensis, is again distinct, and is
represented in Madagascar by Fodicipes pelzelni. In Australia
Fodicipes gularis takes the place of P. fluviatilis^ and in
America the latter species is represented by Fodicipes
dojni7iicus

Habits. — One of the most interesting accounts of the habits
of the Little Grebe is that contributed by Mr. Bryan Hook to
Seebohm's " History of British Birds": —

"On the 25th of March I found a Dabchick's nest on one of
our small ponds about a foot from the water's edge, partly
concealed by a tuft of heather on the bank above it. The pond
was at the bottom of a field where a man was ploughing, and
at the end of each furrow, as he passed the nest, the bird first
carefully covered her eggs, then slipped into the water without
the slightest splash, and remained concealed under the water
amongst the reeds close to the nest. A fortnight afterwards I
found the old bird very reluctant to move, and when, at last,
she did dive away, she left her eggs uncovered. Two days
later I found the old bird sitting in the nest with two young,
and all dived away on my approach, the young ones coming
up about five yards from the shore, where they floated motion-
less. I did not see the young birds again until a fortnight
later when I found them on the nest, wonderfully grown and
able to dive about 15 yards. Nearly a month later, on the
30th of May, the two young birds w^ere full grown, and whilst
one of the parents took charge of them, the other sat upon five
eggs in another nest in a similar situation on the other side of
the pond. She was very restless, constantly getting off and
on the nest. At length she found me out, and after carefully
covering her eggs, slipped into the water behind the nest and
15 ^

2IO ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

remained there until I came up. Four days later some of
the eggs were hatched. The birds slipped off the nest on my
approach, but remained among the rushes close by. I waited
a few minutes and then plainly heard the cheeping of a young
bird, so I drove away the parent, and immediately afterwards
the young ones were floating a little away from the shore. The
other parent bird had another young one further along the bank,
so I ran towards it, but the young one scrambled under the wing
of its parent, who dived away with it. The little one, however,
came to the surface about ten yards from the shore. The
young bird seemed able to dive unassisted about two yards.
Old and young use their legs like a frog, horizontally, striking
both at once, and bringing their feet together at the end of the
stroke. I have seen the old ones diving in clear water some
distance, but they did not use their wings. I spent the fol-
lowing day watching the Dabchicks through a telescope. One
old bird was sitting on the nest whilst the other dived for food,
which she brought at intervals of about two minutes. When
she approached the nest the young birds put their heads out
from under the parent's wing, and took the food the other parent
brought. The moment her provision was disposed of, she was
off for more, always diving from place to place. The morsel,
when found, required a good deal of shaking before it was fit
to be given to the young birds, and when prepared, the parent
dived with it in her beak, appearing again at the edge of the
nest. Whilst I w^as watching her the bird on the nest caught
sight of me, carefully covered the eggs that were still un-
hatched, and slipped into the water. On going up to the nest
I found two of the young birds amongst the rushes on the
margin of the pond. I retired, and after watching a few
minutes, saw the old bird suddenly appear at the side of the
nest, after diving several times underneath it and swimming
once or twice round it. After fully two minutes of this
manoeuvring it landed on the nest and proceeded most care-
fully to remove the covering from the eggs and arrange it
round the sides of the nest ; then sitting upright for a moment
and shaking out her feathers, she settled her breast upon the
eggs. The other parent then came swimming up, and by its
puffy appearance I think it had the youngsters under its wings.
Seeing that all was going on well it probably deposited them

LITTLE GREBE. 211

in the nest, and then paddled gently off. An hour afterwards
I found it very busy collecting weed to add to the nest ; it
made several journeys for the purpose, diving for the weed
it used. After a time it brought some food, but finding the
young ones would not take it, though it tried all round the nest,
it ate it itself On the next day both birds were hard at work
adding to their nest; a strong breeze was blowing, and the waves
would in a very short time have washed it away if it had not
constantly been added to. On one occasion that the eggs
were uncovered, I ran to the nest as fast as I could, but
one of the birds came back and covered the eggs in a moment.
Two eggs were still unhatched and one young bird was dead
in the nest. This brood was evidently a failure ; for eight
days afterwards, on the 13th of June, I found that a third
nest had been built near an island about fifteen yards from the
bank, and one of the birds was sitting upon it. Only on one
other occasion have I ever seen the eggs left uncovered, which
makes me think that the bird only covers her eggs when she
is driven from the nest. I once disturbed a Dabchick and her
young from the nest. They all dived away and disappeared in
different directions, and when the young birds came up the
parent swam alongside of them, and they scrambled under
her wings, which she held up for the purpose. She then
dived away, carrying with her the young birds, which might
have been two or three days old."

I can quite endorse Mr. Seebohm's opinion of the worth of
such observations as the above, especially in the case of such
a bird as the Little Grebe, whose habits are most difficult to
observe closely. I spent much time in studying the habits
of the present species in my younger days. The birds were
common in Hampshire at Avington, where my old friend,
Sir Edward Shelley, used to invite me to visit him every spring.
Not only were these Grebes abundant on the Itchen and its
adjacent water-meadows, but several pairs bred on the lakes
close to the house. They were always visible towards evening,
and as the sun set over the waters, their curious trilling chatter
was sure to be heard as they swam about near the mill-pool, or
disported themselves over the big lake. In May, when the
Ducks were nesting, and the surface of the water became
covered with the growing reeds, the latter were the favourite

p 2

212 Allen's naturalist's lidrary.

refuge of the Grebes on the approach of danger, and their dark
breeding-plumage effectually harmonised with their surround-
ings, as they dived out of danger and re-appeared amidst the
shelter of the water-plants. The bright colour on the base of
the bill often proved the easiest mode of detecting them.

As a rule the nest was placed on the fringe of the reed-beds
skirting the lake, and the eggs, when first laid, were left exposed,
or were but scantily covered. One nest which I found, with
the full complement of eggs, was so thickly covered with wet
water-weeds and rushes, that the eggs had to be felt for
beneath it, and for some time I thought that the birds had
deserted them, as they were always cold, and showed no signs
of incubation, though day by day they became more and more
discoloured. The constant presence of a pair of birds, how-
ever, in the vicinity of this nest, led me to believe that it was
not deserted, and I more than once uncovered the eggs, only to
find the wet covering replaced on each occasion. Intent on
finding out whether the birds re-covered the eggs on leaving the
nest, I approached it cautiously many times, but the Grebes
appeared to have always detected my approach, and were
placidly swimming in the middle of the lake, as if such a thing
as a nest was the last thing in their minds. Once, however, I
managed to come down upon it unperceived, when one of the
parent birds flew away in a great fright, and no possible time
was allowed for it to cover the eggs. They were, nevertheless,
completely hidden, not by a few rushes, such as the bird could
scrape together in a hurry, but by a dense covering of wetted
and rotten weeds. I came to the conclusion that, in this
instance at least, the hatching of the eggs would be left to the
heat of the sun and the fermentation of the material of which
the nest was composed. That this takes place in other
countries has been affirmed by Mr. A. O. Hume and other
excellent observers.

The time which the Little Grebe can spend beneath the
surface is remarkable. I once drove one of these birds into a
ditch about five feet wide, ending in a cul-de-sac^ and felt sure
that I should secure it. While standing on the bank, waiting
for the bird to appear, I was astonished to see it swimming
below me. Having evidently discovered that there was no
outlet at the end of the ditch, it turned beneath the water and

PIED-BILLED GREBE. 213

swam back to the river without reappearing till it was in the
middle of the stream. The bird must have covered at least a
hundred yards beneath the surface, and looked like a large frog
more than a bird. When fishing on the Thames, I have more
than once seen these birds swimming at a considerable depth
in the clear water below me, and have directed their onw\ard
course with a punt-pole.

Nest. — A gruesome mass of wet reeds and water-plants, with
sometimes, in shallow water, a foundation of water- weeds
reaching to the bottom.

Eggs. — Four to six in number. Mr. Robert Read remarks :
— " The eggs of birds taken on the Thames, when newly laid,
are of a pure bluish-white, and become, later on, stained to a
deep dirty yellow, but they are never of such a deep brown as
the peat-stained eggs from some of the Scotch moorland
lochs." Axis, i'35-i'55 inch; diam. o-95-i-i.

THE THICK-BILLED GREBES. GENUS PODILYMBUS.
Fodilymbus^ Less. Traite, i. p. 595 (1831).
Type, P. podicipes (Linn. ).
This American genus differs from the other Grebes which
we have been considering, in having a remarkably stout bill,
its depth being more than haU" of the length of the culraen.

L THE PIED-BILLED GREBE. PODILYMBUS PODICIPES.

Colyjiibiis podicipes^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 223 (1766).
Podilymbiis podiceps, Less.; Sharpe, P. Z. S. 1881, p. 734 ^

Harting, Zool. 1881, p. 334; Saunders, Manual, p. 710,

note (1889).

Adult Male. — General colour above blackish brown : the w^ing-
coverts rather lighter brown than the back ; quills light brown
with dusky tips to the primaries, the secondaries white for the
greater part of the inner web; innermost secondaries like the
back ; tail dark brown ; crown of head and hind-neck blackish-
brown, as also the lores ; sides of face and ear-coverts ashy-
grey, with dusky centres to the feathers ; cheeks white with
dusky shaft-lines, extending down to the middle of the throat

214 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

and skirting the black chin and centre of the throat; sides of
neck and fore-neck ashy-brown ; remainder of under surface
white, thickly mottled with blackish centres to the feathers;
sides of lower back and rump dark brown, with a slight reddish
tinge, the feathers on the lower part of the abdomen darker
grey ; under wing-coverts and axillaries w^hite : — " Bill milk-
white, crossed past the middle by a black band, the terminal
portion more bluish; eyelids white ; naked lores bluish; iris
rich dark brown, with an outer ring of ochraceous white, and
an inner thread-like ring of pure white ; tarsi and toes greenish
slate-black on the outer, and plumbeous on the inner side"
(/?. Ridgway). Total length, 13-0 inches; culmen, I'o;
^ving, 5-35 ; tail, 1-5; tarsus, 1-5.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, but decidedly smaller.
Total length, iq-o inches; wing, 47.

Winter Plumage. — Brown above, with no black on the throat,
which is white ; otherwise as in the summer plumage, but the
sides of the face are brown, and the lower throat, fore-neck,
and sides of neck are rufous-brown ; " bill, horn-colour, becom-
ing blackish basally, and on the culmen ; lower mandible
more lilaceous, with a dusky lateral stripe ; iris of three dis-
tinct colours, disposed in concentric rings, the first (around
the pupil) clear milk-white, the next dark olive-brown, the
outer pale ochraceous-brown, the dark ring reticulated into
the lighter; tarsi and toes greenish -slate, the joints darker"
{R. Ridgway).

Range in Great Britain. — A specimen of this Grebe was
exhibited by me at a meeting of the Zoological Society on
the 2ist of June, 188 1. It w^as brought to the British
Museum by Mr. R. W. Munro, who stated that it had been
killed at Radipole, near Weymouth, in January, 1881. I
took much pains to assure myself of the genuineness of the
occurrence, and as the bird was sold to Mr. Munro as a Little
Grebe, there does not seem to have been any attempt at
deception. Mr. J. E. Harting, how^ever, throws doubt on it,
as he says that the specimen " show^ed remains of longitudinal
dark stripes on the neck, which are observable in the young
of all the Grebes." Mr. Harting should have added that
these dusky streaks are often retained by the young Grebes of

RAILS. 215

the year till January and February, so that there is nothing
extraordinary in the Weymouth specimen still exhibiting
such marks in January, while the fact that it is a young bird
renders it more probable that it had lost its way.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species inhabits
North America from Canada southwards, and extends to
Brazil and Argentina, as well as to the West Indian
Islands.

Habits. — Similar to those of other species of Grebe.

Nest. — A nest, found by Mr. N. B. Moore, in Florida, was
"composed of broken stems of dog-fennel, matted together
with a large portion of decayed and withered aquatic plants,
presenting when found a wet, black, and soggy bed, to all
appearances as uncomfortable a nest as ever fell to the lot of
delicate and beautiful downy creatures such as the Httle ones
were." (Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, Water Birds N. Amer. ii.
p. 442.)

Eg-gs. — Five in number. Bluish-white, with a chalky shell-
covering, but becoming stained to a creamy-white or brown
shade. Axis, 17 inch; diam., 1*55.

THE RAILS. ORDER RALLIFORMES.

In this order the palate is schizognathous, and the nasals
holorhinal. The dorsal vertebrae are heterocoelous, and the
posterior process of the ilium is sufficiently perforated to show a
broad sacrum. The sternum has a single notch on each side
of the posterior margin. The oil-gland is tufted and the after
shaft is present on the contour feathers (cf. Sharpe, Cat. B.
xxiii. p. i).

The Rails are mostly birds of an extraordinary slimness of
body, and, as a rule, they are great skulkers, never venturing
into the open unless driven out from their hiding places. This
is especially true of the Water-Rails and Crakes, many of the
tropical members of these groups being almost, or quite,
incapable of flight.

2i6 ALLLN'S INATURALIST's LIBRARY.

THE RAILS AND WATER-HENS. FAMILY
RALLID.4^:.

The characters of this family are the same as those of the
order, and the Rallidai are divisible into two sub-families, the
Rallince and tlie Coots or Fuliciiim.

The latter birds are recognised by their lobed toes, which
somewhat resemble those of Grebes, and it is for that reason,
and for other characters also, that I place the Ralliforines in
close proximity to the Podicipedidiformes.

THE RAILS. SUB-FAMILY RALLIN^.

In arranging the Rails in the twenty-third volume of the
" Catalogue ot Birds," I found it impossible to separate them
into more than the two sub-families above-mentioned, for the
close connection between Rails, Crakes, and Water-hens does
not allow of any line being draw^n between them, and the latter
approach the Coots in appearance and habits, but have not the
lobed toes, which seem to constitute a character of importance.

THE TRUE RAILS. GENUS RALLUS.

Rallus^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 261 (1766).

Type, R. aquaticus, Linn.

In this genus the bill is very long and narrow, with a deep

and well-marked nasal groove, the culmen generally exceeding

the length of the middle toe and claw, or at least equal to it in

fully grown birds. The tarsus is shorter than the middle toe

and claw. The nasal aperture is situated nearer to the feathers

at the base of the bill than to the anterior end of the nasal

.groove.

I. THE WATER-RAIL. RALLUS AQUATICUS.

Ralhis aquaticus^ Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 262 ([766); Macgill.
Brit. B. iv. p. 521 (1852); Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 257,
pi. 495 (1878); B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 146 (1883);
Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 159 (1883);
Seebohm. Hist Brit. B. ii. p. 552 (1884); Saunders,

#'

III;

!i, V

^r

WATER-RAIL. 21 7

Man. Brit. B. p. 501 (1889); Lilford, Col. Fig. Brit. B.
part XX. (1891); SharpC; Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxiii. p. 20
(1894).

{Plate CXVI.)

Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — General colour above olive-
brown, broadly streaked with black, the feathers being all
longitudinally centred with black, the rump more uniform
olive-brown ; the upper tail-coverts centred with black like the
back; wing- coverts and inner secondaries like the back; the
outer coverts, bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and wing blackish-
brown, quite uniform, or slightly washed with olive externally ;
the first primary pale brown along the outer web ; tail-feathers
blackish, externally olive-brown; crown of head and hind-neck
like the back, more minutely streaked with black ; a broad
eyebrow, sides of face, and under surface of body dark slaty
grey, with a slight dusky shade on the lores and region of the
eye ; throat and fore-neck rather lighter grey than the breast ;
sides of upper breast olive-brown, centred with black like the
back ; flanks and sides of vent black, transversely barred with
white; lower abdomen and vent isabelline buff; under tail-
coverts black, barred with white and tipped with isabelline
buff, the lateral under tail-coverts white; under wing-coverts
and axillaries black, barred and edged with white ; quills ashy-
blackish below. Total length, 11 inches; culmen, 17; wing,
4'9 ; tail, 2*3; tarsus, i*5.

Adult Female.— Similar to the male, but rather smaller; bill
above nostril very dark brown, below nostril and lower man-
dible orange-red ; feet light fleshy brown ; iris orange-red.
Total length, 9-5 inches; wing, 4-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — Similar to the summer plumage,
but decidedly browner ; the under parts freckled with light
brown edges to the feathers, each margin preceded by a dusky
sub-terminal line ; the lower flanks and thighs strongly washed
with fulvous brown ; the outer upper wing- coverts with zig-zag
white bars ; throat whitish.

Young. — Similar to the winter plumage of the adults, but
with a whiter throat, and the whole of the centre of the breast
and abdomen whitish, slightly washed with brown, and with

2i8 Allen's naturallst's library.

obscure dusky bars; outer wingcoverts with narrow white
bars.

Nestling". — Covered with black down.

Range in Great Britain. — The Water- Rail nests in nearly every
county of England, Wales, and Scotland, where suitable locali-
ties exist. It is rarer in the latter kingdom, and breeds
sparsely, but Mr. Robert Read has recorded its eggs from
Fossil Marsh, near Glasgow. In Ireland, Mr. Ussher says that
it is reported to nest in every county. A considerable migra-
tion southward appears to take place in winter ; but the species
has been known to stay during the latter season in the Shet-
land s.

Range outside the British Islands. — The present species is resi-
dent and breeds in most of the countries of Europe, excepting
the extreme northern parts, being resident in Norway near
Bergen, and ranging nearly up to the Arctic circle, while it
has also occurred on Jan-Mayen, and is believed to be resident
in Iceland. Its eastward range extends to Turkestan and
Afghanistan, and it visits North-western India in the winter,
occurring as far east as the Nepal Terai. In Eastern Siberia,
Japan, and Chinn, R. indicus takes its place, and this species
migrates south, visiting Southern China, and the Burmese
Provinces, and extending west to the district of Calcutta and
to Oudh.

Habits. — The Water-Rail, like most of its relations, is a very
shy bird, and one whose habits are most difficult to study in
consequence. It takes flight most unwillingly, and trusts to
its legs for safety. Even in the thickest of brakes it can twist
and turn with great rapidity, while its peculiarly compressed and
slender body enables it to thread its way through the grass and
rushes at a high rate of speed. One which I shot at x\vington,
in November, gave me a lot of trouble to secure. Our party
was returning from duck-shooting in the water meadows, when
I saw the retriever running along the side of a hedge-row, with
a deep ditch of water on the side nearest to me. I crept up,
thinking that he w\is after a wounded Duck, but for some time I
could see nothing of his quarry. At last I could make out

WATER-RAIL. 219

something like a rat darting out from under the roots of a
bush, and apparently making for the river. When the dog
approached its hiding-place again, the Rail, as I now perceived
it to be, instead of taking to flight and putting the Itchen
between it and its pursuer, deliberately doubled, and running
past the dog, which had an insecure foothold on the sloping
bank, scudded some fifty yards back along the latter, and hid
up. The retriever retraced his steps, and again drove the Rail
towards the river, but the bird repeated its doubling manoeuvre,
and the dog had to resume the chase again from the starting point.
At last the Rail took flight, and flew across the river with reluct-
ance, with its legs hanging down, when I shot it. During the
whole of the chase this bird uttered no sound; but the Water-
Rail has a note, which Naumann describes as a clear, shrill,
but melodious kreek, uttered principally during the evening
when preparing to migrate. During the pairing season, at
evening time, it utters a liquid ivJieet^ not unlike that of the
Nuthach. The food of the bird consists of worms, insects,
snails, and gnats, and it also eats the tender shoots of aquatic
plants, or the seeds of reeds and sedge, according to
Seebohm. Mr. Howard Saunders says that "during the
breeding season Water-Rails are very noisy, uttering a loud
groaning cro-o-o-an^ called ' sharming ' in Norfolk.''

Nest. — A nest found by Seebohm and Mr. Howard Saunders
in the Norfolk Broads is described as being " admirably con-
cealed. It was about a foot from the ground, but had a solid
foundation under it, formed by the roots of the clump of rushes,
in the midst of which it was built. It was carefully made ot
flat sedge and the flat leaves of the reed, lined with dry broken
pieces of round slender reeds."

Eggs. — Five to seven in number, but sometimes as many as
nine or eleven. Ground-colour creamy or pinkish-stone, with a
few spots of rufous distributed over the egg, or clustering
towards the larger end. The egg is double-spotted, the under-
lying spots being lilac-grey, and nearly as distinct as the over-
lying ones. As a rule the rufous spots are small, but
occasionally they are large and form blotches towards the
big end of the egg. Axis, r4-i"5 inch; diam,, i-o-i-o5.

220 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

THE LAND-RAILS. GENUS CREX.

Crex, Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb. p. 336 (1802).

Type, Crex crex (Linn.).

All the Crakes have much shorter and stouter bills than the

true Rails, the culmen in the genus Crex being less than the

length of the inner toe. The tarsus is about equal in length

to the middle toe and claw, and there is no frontal shield as in

the Water-Hens.

Only one species of true Crake is known, viz., the Corn-
Crake or Land-Rail described below.

I. THE LAND-RAIL. CREX CREX.

Rallus crex, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 261 (1766).

Crex prate7isis,V>&c\\^\.', Macgill. Brit. B. iv. p. 527(1852);

Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 291, pi. 499 (1878); B. O. U.

List. Brit. B. p. 149 (1883); Saunders, ed. Yarrell's Brit.

B. iii. p. 157 (1883); Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 535

(1884); Saunders, Man. Brit. B. p. 493 (1889).
Crex crex, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit, xxiii. p. 82 (1894).

{.Plate CXVII.)

Adult Male in Summer Plumage. — General colour above brown,
mottled with black centres to the feathers, which have more
or less of an ashy shade on their margins ; scapulars
like the back, with broad black centres; wing-coverts uni-
form bright chestnut ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts and
quills chestnut brown, the first primary externally isabel-
line buff, the inner secondaries Uke the back, with black
centres, and indistinguishable from the scapulars ; tail-
feathers light reddish-brown, centred with black; crown of head
fulvous brown, mottled with black centres to the feathers, the
two colours arranged in streaks ; hind-neck and sides of neck
fulvous brown, with smaller blackish-brown spots ; lores and
feathers below the eye, as well as a band along the upper ear-
coverts to the sides of the neck sandy-buff; above the eye a
band of ashy-grey, widening towards the sides of the nape ;
ear-coverts, cheeks, lower throat, fore-neck, and chest ashy-
grey ; the chin and upper throat isabelline ; breast and

^ ^

''' *J?^

LAND-RAIL. 221

abdomen isabelline, as well as the upper tail-coverts ; sides of
upper breast brown, with a few white bars ; flanks sandy-
rufous or rufous-brown, the feathers tipped and barred with
isabelline or whitish ; sides of vent barred with darker brown ,
thighs sandy-rufous; shorter under tail-coverts barred \\ith
rufous and brown ; under wing-coverts and axillaries bright
chestnut ; quills below brown, rufescent along the inner edge ;
bill, feet, and claws pale brown ; iris hazel. Total length,
lo inches; culmen, o"85 ; wing, 5*6; tail, i"9; tarsus, i'45.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male, and having the same grey
on the eyebrow, face, and breast. Total length, 9 inches ;
wing, 5-2.

Adult in Winter Plumage. — As in summer, but instead of the
grey on the eyebrow, sides of face, and breast, these parts are
all ochreous brown, and the sides of the body are decidedly
more rufescent, with distinct and broad bars of black on the
flanks and under tail-coverts ; the wing-coverts also have
distinct whitish bars, particularly on the greater series, where
these bars have blackish or dusky margins.

Young after First Moult. — Similar to the winter plumage of
the adults, and lacking the grey on the face and breast, and
having the sides of the body nearly uniform tawny, with a few
dusky bars and whitish tips to the feathers.

Nestling. — Covered with black down.

Range in Great Britain. — This Rail is found throughout the
British Islands from the south to the north, including the
Hebrides, the Orkneys, and Shetlands. In Ireland, Mr.
Ussher says it breeds commonly in every part except the
mountains, nesting even in some of the islands, such as
Innishbofin. In the home counties of England, however, there
is a decided decrease in the number of Land-Rails every
summer, which it is difficult to account for. At Cookham, for
instance, in the Thames valley, the bird seldom visits us,
though the hay-fields are the same and its haunts absolutely
unchanged from the days when it was always present, thirty
years ago. I am speaking of my brother-in-law's estate, in
which no change has taken place. In the neighbourhood of
London, no doubt, the vast increase of building must account

2 22 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARY.

for the driving away of this shy bird from some of its old
haunts.

Range outside ttie British Islands. — Tiie Land-Rail is dis-
tributed over the greater part of Europe and Asia as far east
as the Valley of the Yenesei, and that of the Lena, breeding
also in Western Turkestan. On migration it passes through
the countries of Southern Europe, but Mr. Saunders believes
that it does not breed south of the line of the Pyrenees. Its
winter quarters are in Africa, and at this season of the year it
also wanders to Arabia and the shores of the Persian Gulf.
The Land-Rail has also been met with in Greenland and the
Eastern United States, and in the Bermudas.

Habits. — The Land-Rail or Corn-Crake is a familiar inhabi-
tant of our pasture-lands in summer, where its grating and
monotonous creak-creak is heard, especially towards evening,
and long after darkness has set in. Its cry is distinctly ventri-
loquial, and Mr. Howard Saunders considers that this is due
" to the marvellous rapidity with which it sneaks, unperceived,
from one spot to another." I have not myself observed this ;
but, on the contrary, I believe that, like the notes of the
Creeper or the Grasshopper Warbler, the utterance of the
Corn-Crake's note has that ventriloquial power that makes its
cry sound far or near. I remember, on one occasion, making
my way into one of our own fields of high grass at Cookham in
search of one of these birds at night, and when within ten
yards of the Crake, its note sounded from all points of the
compass around me ; but I stopped still, refusing to be deluded
by its ventriloquism, until I crept to the spot whence
I was sure that the sounds proceeded, and at last I managed
to approach so close above it that I almost succeeded in catch-
ing it before it scented danger and scuttled away. My old
friend Briggs, the Cookham naturalist, who first taught me to
skin birds, and with whom Mr. Howard Saunders and myself
have had many a ramble, used to pride himself on being able
to track Land-Rails in the grass, and I remember on one occa-
sion walking with him in the meadows opposite the Cliefden
Woods, when we heard the creak of one of these Rails close
to us in a ha5'-fiel(l. He not only walked straight to where the
bird was, but as it flew up, he threw his walking-stick at it And

LITTLE CRAKE. 223

knocked it down close to the river's edge, when the bird took
to the water and swam right across to the other side of the
Thames.

The food of the Corn-Crake is varied, and consists of worms,
slugs, snails, small lizards, and also of seeds and plants.

Nest. — A simple structure of dry grass and plants, placed on
the ground.

Eggs. — From seven to ten in number. Ground-colour
varying from stone grey to greenish-white or buffish clay-colour,
with numerous dots and spots of rufous distributed over the
egg, the underlying grey spots very distinct and equally
distributed. Sometimes the rufous markings collect round the
large end of the egg and form a blotch ; but in many eggs,
particularly of the stone-coloured type, the spots are more
scattered and universally distributed over the surface. Axis,
i-4-i'55 inch; diam., ro-i'i.

THE LITTLE CRAKES. GENUS ZAPORNIA.

Zapornia, Leach, Syst. Cat. Mamm. & Birds, Brit. Mus. p. 34
(1816).

Type, Z. parva (Scop.).

The small Crakes of the genera Zapornia and Forza?ia
differ from the true Crakes {Crex) in their long middle toe,
which, with the claw, exceeds the tarsus in length. The sexes
in the genus Zapornia differ in colour, and the secondaries are
conspicuously shorter than the primaries, falling short of them
by as much as the length of the inner toe and claw, so that the
wing is decidedly pointed in shape for a Crake.

L THE LITTLE CRAKE. ZAPORNIA PARVA.

Rallus parvus, Scop. Ann. i. p. 108 (1769).

Crex piisilla (nee Pall.), Macgill Brit. B. iv. p. 541 (1852).

Porzana parva, Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 283, pi. 498 (1878) ;

B. O. U. List Brit. B. p. 148 (1883); Saunders, cd.

Yarrdl's Brit. B. iii. p. 148 (18S3); id. Man. Brit. B,

p. 497 (1889).

224 ALLEN S NATURALISTS LIBRARV.

Crex parva, Seebohm, Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 457 ([£84).
Zapornia parva, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. JNIus. xxiii. p. 89 (1894).

AdiQt Male in Breeding Plumage. — General colour above
ochreous brown, varied with black centres to the feathers and
a few white spots ; the scapulars and innermost secondaries
ochreous brown with blacl<: centres, the latter pale ochreous
along their inner webs, forming a longitudinal band on each
side of the back ; the rest of the wing-coverts nearly uniform
brown ; bastard-wing, primary-coverts, and quills sepia-brown ;
lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts darker and with
more black than the rest of the back, the feathers being black
edged with brown ; tail-feathers also black edged with brown ;
hinder crown uniform reddish-brown, like the hind-neck ; fore-
head, a broad eyebrow, sides of face, and entire under
surface of body hght slaty-grey; sides of breast ochreous
brown, like the sides of the neck ; flanks almost entirely
uniform, excepting for a few white bars, and dusky on the
lower thighs and vent ; under tail-coveits white, washed with
ochreous and crossed with blackish bars ; under wing-coverts
and axillaries uniform brov\ n, like the quill-lining ; bill green
tinged with red at the base; legs and feet green; iris deep
carmine. Total length, 7 inches; culmen, 07 ; wing, 4; tail,
2 ; tarsus, i"i5 ; middle toe and claw, i'6.

Adult Female. — Similar to the male on the upper surface,
but a little more olive, the brown colour of the head extending
in a narrow line to the base of the bill ; lores hoary-grey ;
sides of face and a broad eyebrow grey ; a faint tinge of brown
on the ear-coverts ; cheeks and throat white ; remainder of
under surface, from the fore-neck downwards, pale vinaceous
isabelline ; thighs clear ashy, as also the lower flanks, which
have dusky bars and white edges to the feathers ; vent and
under tail-coverts barred with black and white, the latter
tinged with ochreous buff. Total length, 7 inches ; wing,
4'o5-

Young. — Similar in general to the adult female, but having
the scapulars mottled with white bars ; under-surface of
body entirely white, as also the sides of face and eyebrow ; the
breast more or less varied with the remains of dusky edgings
to the feathers ; the thighs distinctly banded with brown and

LITTLE CRAKE.

225

white ; the greater coverts, primary-coverts, and quills with
more or less distinct white spots at the tips.

Nestling. — " Covered with black down with a greenish gloss ;
legs bluish-grey " ( IF. Eagle Clarke).

Range in Great Britain. — A spring and autumn visitor to our
islands. No authentic instance of its having bred in England
has been noted. Though it has been recorded from many
counties, and especially from Norfolk, in Scotland and in
Ireland the species has occurred but once.

Range outside the British Islands. — The Little Crake breeds
throughout Central Europe and Russia, and is believed to
have nested in Southern Sweden. In Italy it also breeds, but
in other parts of the Mediterranean it is only known as a
migrant, though resident again in Algeria. Its eastern range
extends to Central Asia and Afghanistan, and it winters in
North- Western India and in Equatorial Africa.

Habits. — Mr. A. O. Hum.e thus describes the habits of the
Little Crake in Sind : — '' I never flushed these birds out of
sedge or reed, but found them everywhere running about over
the lotus and water-Hly leaves, or swimming about from leaf to
leaf, and exhibiting far less timidity than Baillon's Crake.
Like the latter, they look when in the water exactly like tiny
Water-hens, jerking their tails and nodding their heads exactly
like the latter. One thing I noticed in this species which I
never observed in either of the others — I saw one bird volun-
tarily diving several times, apparently in search of food. The
others will dive when a shot is suddenly fired near them, or
when they are wounded, but this bird was deliberately diving
for its own amusement. When pressed, they rise more
steadily and fly more strongly than Baillon's Crake, taking
refuge in the thickets of tamarisk that fringe the broads, and
are studded about most of them as islands. The food of
this species seems to consist far more exclusively of insects
than that of Baillon's Crake. In more than a dozen specimens
which I examined, the stomachs contained water-bugs and
beetles, small insects of all kinds, and larvae of various, and to
me quite unknown, species, with here and there a i&w small
black seeds and a trace of vegetable matter. Of course, as is
IS Q

2 26 Allen's naturalist's library.

the case with Baillon's Crake, there were a good many minute
pebbles or fragments of quartz, coarse sand in fact, mixed with
the food, in the triturition of which it no doubt forms an
important part."

Nest. — Mr. Eagle Clarke found the nest of this species in
Slavonia, in an extensive and particularly secluded shallow
marsh near the village of Obrez. The surface of the marsh
was clothed with sallow-brakes, reed-beds, and areas covered
with tussocks of sedge. The nest, containing seven eggs, was
placed on the side, not in the centre, of one of these tussocks
of medium size. It was merely a depression, amply lined with
short broad pieces of withered reed blades, and was about six
inches above the surface of the water, which was here about
eighteen inches deep.

Eg-gs. — Seven or eight in number. Ground-colour pale
olive, flecked with brown; oval in shape. Axis, i"i inch;
diam., 0*85.

THE SPOTTED CRAKES. GENUS PORZANA.

Forzana^ Vieillot, Analyse, p. 61 (1816).

Type, P.porzafia (Linn.).

The genus Porzana resembles Zapornia in having the tarsus

shorter than the middle toe and claw, but the shape of the

wings is different. The secondary quills fall short of the

primaries by as much as the length of the hind toe and claw,

and they are consequently more rounded than in Zapomia.

The sexes are alike in plumage.

L THE SPOTTED CRAKE. PORZANA PORZANA.

RalliLS porzana, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 262 (1766).

Crex porzana^ ^lacgill Brit. B. iv. p. 535 (1852); Seebohm,

Hist. Brit. B. ii. p. 540 (1884).
Porzana marnetta, Bp. ; Dresser, B. Eur. vii. p. 267, pi. 496

(1878); B. O. U. List. Brit. B. p. 147 (1883); Saunders,

ed. Yarrell's Brit. B. iii. p. 143 (1884); id. Man. Brit B.

p. 495 (1889).
Porzana porzana, Sharpe, Cat. B. Brit. Mus. xxiii. p. 93

(1894).

{Plate CXVIII.)

p^

t

/' '■

SPOTTLD CRAKE. 227

Adult Male in Winter Plumage. — General colour above olive-
brown, mottled with white and black markings, the white
being distributed in the form of lateral spots on the dorsal
feathers, and on the scapulars and wing-coverts in the form
of arrow-head spots or bars, which are margined with blac